GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORKS
FICTION
Lyrics: thematic groups and genres
Oh yeah - the leading genre of high style, characteristic primarily of the poetry of classicism. The ode is distinguished by canonical themes (glorification of God, fatherland, life wisdom, etc.), techniques (“quiet” or “swift” attack, the presence of digressions, permitted “lyrical disorder”) and types (spiritual odes, solemn odes - “pindaric”, moralizing - “Horatian”, love - “Anacreontic”).
Hymn - a solemn song based on programmatic verses.
Elegy - genre of lyricism, a poem of medium length, meditative or emotional content (usually sad), most often in the first person, without a distinct composition.”
Idyll - a genre of lyricism, a small work that depicts an eternally beautiful nature, sometimes in contrast with a restless and vicious person, a peaceful, virtuous life in the lap of nature, etc.
Sonnet - a poem of 14 lines forming 2 quatrains and 2 tercets or 3 quatrains and 1 couplet. The following types of sonnets are known:
- “French” sonnet - abba abba ccd eed (or ccd ede);
- “Italian” sonnet - abab abab cdc dcd (or cde cde);
- “English sonnet” - abab cdcd efef gg.
Wreath of sonnets - a cycle of 14 sonnets, in which the first verse of each repeats the last verse of the previous one (forming a “garland”), and together these first verses form the 15th, “main” sonnet (forming a glossa).
Romance - a short poem written for solo singing with instrumental accompaniment, the text of which is characterized by melodious melody, syntactic simplicity and harmony, completeness of the sentence within the boundaries of the stanza.
Dithyramb - a genre of ancient lyric poetry that arose as a choral song, a hymn in honor of the god Dionysus, or Bacchus, and later in honor of other gods and heroes.
Madrigal - a short poem of predominantly loving and complimentary (less often abstract and meditative) content, usually with a paradoxical sharpening at the end.
Thought - a lyric-epic song, the style of which is characterized by symbolic pictures, negative parallelisms, retardation, tautological phrases, unity of beginning.
Message - a genre of lyricism, a poetic letter, the formal sign of which is the presence of an appeal to a specific addressee and, accordingly, such motives as requests, wishes, exhortation, etc. The content of the message according to tradition (from Horace) is mainly moral, philosophical and didactic, but there were numerous narrative messages , panegyric, satirical, love, etc.
Epigram - a short satirical poem, usually with a sharp point at the end.
Ballad - a poem with a dramatic development of the plot, which is based on an extraordinary story reflecting the essential moments of interactions between a person and society or interpersonal relationships. The characteristic features of a ballad are a small volume, a tense plot, usually full of tragedy and mystery, abrupt narration, dramatic dialogue, melodiousness and musicality.
What is the name of the type of lyricism to which this poem belongs? // What genre-thematic type of poetry does this poem belong to? Landscape, civil, love, friendly, meditative (Tyutchev “There is melodiousness in the sea waves...”), philosophical... What is the name of a stylistic figure based on a change in the direct order of words? // What stylistic figure, consisting of a violation of the generally accepted order of words, is used by the poet for creating …? Inversion is a term used in literary studies to describe a figurative and expressive means that allows one to transfer meaning by similarity from one object to another? (Mean of allegorical expressiveness). Metaphor Indicate the name of the stylistic device that the poet uses by starting lines with the same word. Anaphora
What is the character of the rhyme called? Circular, cross, adjacent What poetic genre does this poem belong to? Ode, elegy, dedication, epigram... What is the name of a poetic device based on the repetition of vowel sounds? Assonance What is the poetic technique of repeating identical consonant sounds called? Alliteration Determine the meter in which the poem is written. Iambic, trochee, dactyl, amphibrachium, anapest Write down the term used to describe the artistic definition. Epithet
What is the name of the technique that allows you to endow the world around you with human feelings and experiences? Personification What is the name of the versification system in which this poem is written? Tonic, syllabic-tonic What is the name in literary criticism for a combination of lines held together by a common rhyme and intonation? Stanza What is the term used to indicate the consonance of the ends of poetic lines? Rhyme What is the name of a technique based on a combination of incompatible concepts? Oxymoron
Name the type of trope based on the comparison of objects or phenomena. Comparison What is the simplest unit of plot development called? Motive What is the term for a complex of lines consisting of quatrains, each of which is an organized combination of poetic lines. Quatrain What is the name of the method of allegory that involves depicting an abstract idea through concrete images? Allegory What is the name of a generalized image that includes many associative features. Symbol
What artistic category allows you to create the effect of “conjugation” of the past and the present? Time What is the name of the technique that consists of replacing a word with a descriptive expression indicating important properties, qualities, signs of an object or phenomenon? Periphrase To enhance the emotional significance of the statement, the author uses the form of a question that does not require an answer. What is this means of expression called? Rhetorical question Name the type of composition characterized by the repetition of the same motif, line, etc. at the beginning and end of the work. Koltsevaya Which literary movement does creativity belong to...? Classicism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, futurism, acmeism, imagism
What is the name of an artistic technique based on sharp opposition? Antithesis//contrast The second and third stanzas are built on a comparison of pictures of nature and the human condition. What is this technique called in literary criticism? Comparison//Parallelism The second and fourth stanzas are almost identical in content. What is this technique called? Repeat What artistic category allows you to create the illusion of interpermeability of two worlds? Space What is the name of the poetic concept that affirms the intrinsic value of artistic creativity? Art for art's sake
Sonnet (Italian sonetto, from Provence sonet - song) - solid poetry. form: a poem of 14 lines, divided into two 4-verses (quatrain) and two 3-verses (terzetto); in quatrains only 2 rhymes are repeated, in terzettos - 2 or 3. The arrangement of rhymes allows many variations; the most stable are two types: 1) “Italian” - quatrains according to the scheme abab abab or abba abba, tercettoes according to the scheme cdc dcd or cde cde; 2) “French” - quatrains according to the abba abba scheme, tercets according to the ccd eed or ccd ede scheme. Of the many There are two most generally accepted conventional rules developed by S. theorists: a) the “closed” rhyme of quatrains abba is considered more perfect than the “open” abab; b) “closed” quatrains must correspond to “open” terzets (cdc dcd or ccd ede), “open” quatrains - “closed” terzets (ccd eed). The sonnet verse is an eleven-syllable verse in Italian. and Spanish poetry; Alexandrian verse - in French; Iambic 5-foot - in English, iambic 5-foot and 6-foot - in German and Russian.
From this classic. schemes in practice, deviations within the widest limits are possible: changing the order of rhymes (abab baab y A. S. Pushkin, abba baab by K. D. Balmont), introducing extra rhymes (abba cddc by C. Baudelaire, etc.), introducing extra lines (“double sonnets”, “sonnets with a coda” - supplemented by verse, terzetto or even several terzettos by Burchiello, F. Berni, etc.), free order of quatrains and terzettos (especially by the French symbolists), the use of non-traditional ones. sizes (accent verse by J.M. Hopkins, “monosyllabic lines” by a number of experimenters), up to “sonnets” in blank verse by Merrill Moore, where only 14 lines of S. remain. Of these “free forms”, only the “English sonnet” of the Shakespearean type abab cdcd efef gg has been canonized to some degree.
Classicism and the Enlightenment are accompanied by a decline in fashion in S. Romanticism revives it again, and this time the center of S. culture is Germany (A. Schlegel, F. Rückert, N. Lenau, A. Platen), England (W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge) and partly slav. countries (J. Kollar, A. Mitskevich, in Russia - A. A. Delvig, A. A. Grigoriev); a continuation or departure from romanticism was the work of the masters of the 19th century. (E.B. Browning, D.G. Rossetti, C. Baudelaire, J. Heredia, A. Kental). Symbolism and modernism cultivated the form of S. and brought forward many prominent masters (P. Verlaine, P. Valery, G. D'Annunzio, S. George, R. M. Rilke, V. Ya. Bryusov, Vyach. Ivanov, etc.; of the poets who overcame modernism is I. Becher). In Sov. poetry with the S form (including the wreath of sonnets) was experimented by I. Selvinsky and S. Kirsanov, but it did not gain much popularity (see “Star Sonnets” by L. Vysheslavsky, sonnets by N. Matveeva, etc.).
Gasparov M. L. Sonnet // Brief literary encyclopedia / Ch. ed. A. A. Surkov. – M.: Sov. Encycl., 1962–1978. T. 7: “Soviet Ukraine” – Fliaki. – 1972. – Stb. 67–68.
Lyrics are a literary genre in which the poet’s feelings, thoughts, and moods, caused by the phenomena of life that excited him, are directly reproduced. L.I. Timofeev notes that “lyrics are a reflection of the entire diversity of reality in the mirror of the human soul, in all the subtlest nuances of the human psyche and in the fullness of speech expression that corresponds to them” *.
* (L. I. Timofeev. Fundamentals of Literary Theory, p. 108.)
Unlike all other literary genres, lyrics are primarily and most oriented towards the emotional perception of the reader. And this brings it closer to another area of art - music, which is also a figurative expression of human experiences and specifically affects human feelings. Even the very name of the literary genre (“lyre” - a musical instrument in ancient Greece) emphasizes its connection with music. This synthesis of words and music has survived to this day and has led to the identification of related genres, such as lyrical-vocal and musical-dramatic.
The genetic connection of poetry with music is manifested in its subordination to rhythm and many other specific features of this art (up to the development of leitmotifs or compositional forms such as rondo or ballad). The musicality of poetry is recognized by both poets and composers. The development of lyrics has always been largely connected with the development of music.
A specific feature of the lyrics is the subjective reflection of experiences in images.
Subjective perception of reality manifests itself in poetry in different ways. An obvious exaggeration is the attempt of some literary scholars to reduce the content of any lyrical work only to the “self-expression” of the poet, only to the disclosure of his “I”, considered, moreover, in a narrow biographical plan. Even in the most intimate poems, such as, for example, “I loved you” by Pushkin, not only the author’s feelings are expressed, but also what is close, what is deeply understandable and dear to readers. In other words, through the concrete, uniquely individual experience of the poet, the general, essential, characteristic is conveyed, which constitutes the specificity of the figurative reproduction of life.
In many of the best works, the artist typifies those experiences that are either a concentration of his emotions, or become, as it were, their projection for transmission to a fictional character who is endowed with qualities that are not directly characteristic of the poet. In this regard, an important question arises about the lyrical hero. The introduction of this concept into literary criticism is justified by the theorists’ desire to distinguish between the author’s “I” and the typified “I” of a fictional character, whose feelings and thoughts are expressed in the work in the first person.
Even N.G. Chernyshevsky, in the article “Poems of Countess Rostopchina,” argued that “one should not assume that each “I” that expresses its feelings in a lyrical play is necessarily the “I” of the author himself, by whom the play was written” *.
* (N. G. Chernyshevsky. Poll. collection soch., vol. 3, pp. 455-456.)
Considering poems like Pushkin’s “Black Shawl,” one can only talk about a lyrical hero, who was created by the creative imagination of the author and who uniquely expresses the feelings and thoughts that excited him.
The concept of a lyrical hero should also not be interpreted too broadly, associating it with the image of the narrator in the epic. The lyrical hero is only one of the possibilities for expressing the poet’s personality in a work. Soviet critic L. Ginzburg rightly asserts that “in lyric poetry, the author’s consciousness can be expressed in a variety of forms - from a personified lyrical hero to an abstract image of a poet included in classical genres, and, on the other hand, to all sorts of “objective” plots and characters , objects that encrypt the lyrical subject precisely so that he continues to shine through them" *.
* (L. Ginzburg. About the lyrics. M.-L., 1964, p. 6.)
This “encryption of the lyrical subject” is especially characteristic of epigrams and madrigals, in which specific characters are depicted, and the author’s subjective attitude towards them is manifested precisely in the assessment of certain of their qualities, deliberately exaggerated, and most importantly, one-sidedly selected and isolated from others, characterizing the appearance of the prototype person .
At the same time, we must recognize the conventions of distinguishing between the image of a lyrical hero and the image of a poet. Even N.V. Gogol rightly wrote that any work reflects, to a greater or lesser extent, the personality of the author himself. However, in poems like Pushkin’s “Monument”, the poet directly expresses his thoughts, feelings, thoughts about poetic work, the meaning of creativity, and the connection between literature and life. The poetic declaration expressed in the work completely coincides with the views of the author himself. Before us stands the image of a poet with his worries, anxieties, sympathies, and his philosophical thoughts.
In other poems, the image of the poet comes closer to the image of the narrator. In Nekrasov's "Reflections at the Front Entrance" all events are conveyed through the perception of the author, who acts as an eyewitness to the ominous injustice and cruel heartlessness of those in power, their disdainful attitude towards the hardships and needs of the people. The poet's image is revealed through his emotional attitude to the events depicted.
In many lyrical poems, the image of the poet appears along with the central characters in a real everyday situation (for example, in the poems “Schoolboy” by Nekrasov or “To Comrade Nette - a Steamship and a Man” by Mayakovsky).
In a lyrical poem, images-characters can also be reproduced, appearing quite objectively, regardless of the author. Such, for example, is the image of Katyusha in Isakovsky’s song of the same name. However, the feelings of these image-characters are colored by the likes and dislikes of the poet himself. In satirical poems, these author's emotions are expressed in the form of the artist's direct condemnation of the negative phenomena of reality.
The problem of plot in lyrics is very complex. Some researchers classify all or almost all lyric poems as plotless works due to the fact that they do not directly convey the development of events. Others consider this issue too broadly, without taking into account the specifics of the genus.
Of course, landscape poems do not have a plot. This also applies to those lyrical works that only describe certain emotional states (epitaphs, madrigals, etc.).
A peculiar, so-called lyrical plot can be discussed in relation to works that depict the complex development of the growth of feelings. In this sense, we can talk, for example, about A. S. Pushkin’s poem “I Loved You,” which reveals the history of the relationship between the lyrical hero and his beloved.
One can quite definitely talk about the plot in connection with the characteristics of those poems in which, in the form of memories or in the form of a response, events from the lives of the heroes, the history of their relationships, changes in their destinies are reflected.
In the 19th century the process of rapprochement between lyric poetry and epic prose began, which determined the widespread use of elements of an epic plot even in such traditional lyrical genres as epistle or elegy.
In some poems the composition is directly determined by the plot, in others it is subordinated to the development of the central image. This image, which appears directly at first, can then be replaced by a metaphor, as, for example, in the poem “Ogonyok” by Isakovsky.
Often the compositional integrity of a work is achieved with the help of a repetition ring (sometimes modified) of the first lines (stanzas) at the beginning and at the end.
Classification of lyrical works
The classification of lyrical works by type and variety is very complex. A variety of lyrical poems expressing the most varied shades of feelings, moods, experiences; the more definite dependence of the genre on the features of composition and language, as well as on rhythm and stanza, than in works of other types - all this complicates systematization and makes it very difficult to differentiate according to any single principle.
There were different principles for the genre differentiation of lyrics.
In antiquity, and then in the era of classicism, they sought to clearly differentiate genres by form and content. The rationalistic views of the classicists determined the establishment of certain genre canons. Subsequently, many traditional types of lyric poetry did not receive their development (eclogue, epithalamus, pastoral), others changed their character, acquiring a different social meaning (elegy, message, epigram).
In poetry from the second half of the 19th century. The distinctions between surviving species have become very arbitrary. The message, for example, often acquired the characteristics of an elegy or ode.
The classification based on the differentiation of poems by stanza has almost become obsolete. All that remains of it in modern European poetry is the selection of sonnets, and in eastern poetry - octets, ghazals, rubais and some other stable strophic forms.
The most common classification now is based on the thematic principle. In accordance with it, lyrics are distinguished into patriotic (for example, “Poems about the Soviet “passport” by Mayakovsky), socio-political (” Communist Marseillaise” by Bedny), historical ( “Borodino” by Lermontov), philosophical ( “Man” by Mezhelaitis), intimate, (“Lines of Love” by Shchipachev), landscape (“Spring Thunderstorm” by Tyutchev).
Of course, this distinction is very arbitrary, and therefore the same poem can be classified as different types. Thus, “Borodino” by Lermontov is both a historical and patriotic work. F. I. Tyutchev’s landscape poems express his philosophical ideas (for example, in “Fountain”). “Poems about the Soviet Passport” by Mayakovsky, usually classified as patriotic lyrics, can with no less justification be considered both as an example of a socio-political and as an example of an intimate poem. In this regard, when determining the type, it is necessary to take into account the relationship of various leitmotifs in a lyrical work, determining which of them plays a dominant role.
At the same time, lyrical poems continue to appear in modern poetry, corresponding to a greater or lesser extent to such traditional genre forms as an epigram, message, elegy, and ode.
Oh yeah
In modern literary criticism, an ode is usually defined as a lyric poem glorifying an important historical event or a prominent historical figure.
The origins of the ode are in ancient poetry. However, in ancient Greece, this name meant not only songs of praise, but also works of various contents, performed to the accompaniment of a musical instrument. The further development of this genre was particularly influenced by the “epinikia” (odes of praise) of the ancient Greek poet Pindar (518-442 BC), glorifying the heroes - winners of competitions in a solemn form, full of exquisite paths and figures. The odes of Pindar and Horace were considered as models by classicists who developed the main criteria for this genre. Already in the work of the founder of classicism in France, F. Malherbe (1555-1628), the ode emerged as the “highest” genre, most accurately and fully reflecting the principles of this literary movement. The ode served to praise the absolute monarchy and its adherents, glorifying the victories of kings and generals. The solemn sublimity of the content determined the originality of the composition and the peculiarities of the language.
Poets resorted to numerous tropes (especially metaphors and periphrases) and rhetorical figures in their odes. Words from the living spoken language, and even more so from vernacular and vulgarisms, were expelled from the odes as alien to its sublime nature. The mandatory requirements for the ode included accuracy of strophic construction (the ten-line stanza was the most common), purity of the rhythmic structure (inadmissibility of pyrrhics), sonority of rhymes, inadmissibility of hyphenation, etc.
The theory and practice of French classicists had a strong influence on the development of this genre in the literature of other European countries until the end of the 18th century.
Odes were intended to be delivered in a solemn, festive atmosphere, which brought them closer to the performances of orators.
In Russian poetry, solemn odes were created by M. V. Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin and other classicists. Lomonosov's "Ode on the Day of the Accession to the All-Russian Throne of Her Majesty the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna in 1747" by Lomonosov, which has become a textbook example, is a classic example of works of this genre. “Lomonosov’s ode,” wrote Yu. Tynyanov, “can be called oratorical not because or not only because it is thought of as being pronounced, but mainly because the oratorical moment became decisive, constructive for it. Oratorical principles of greatest impact and verbal development subordinated and transformed all the elements of the word...".
The outstanding Russian poet G.R. Derzhavin, adhering to these classicist principles in his “Discussion “On Lyric Poetry or Ode”, significantly expanded the narrow boundaries of this genre in his creative practice. Thus, in Derzhavin’s “Felitsa” there are colloquialisms that are unacceptable according to the laws of the genre, depiction of everyday details, irony and even a satirical element.
Subsequently, both the content and form of the ode evolved. In the works of progressive poets of the 19th century. criticism of tyrants was combined with glorification of freedom. Such are the ode “Liberty” by Radishchev, the poem of the same name by Pushkin, and a number of works by Decembrist poets. The creation of odes was turned to especially often during the years of the rise of the revolutionary movement. However, this largely rhetorical, traditional genre did not correspond to the basic principles of progressive romanticism and critical realism. In the second half of the 19th century. ode gives way to hymns, cantatas, oratorios and other types of lyrical-vocal genre. In this one cannot help but notice a return to the origins of odic poetry, organically connected with music at the dawn of its development.
In Soviet poetry, “Ode to the Revolution” was created by V.V. Mayakovsky. Other poets also turned to creating works of this genre. Serious changes in the specifics of the ode that occurred during this period are expressed in a significant reduction in volume, in the updating of vocabulary, and in a more limited use of tropes and figures.
Elegy
Elegy has also undergone a significant evolution in the history of world poetry. It originates from an ancient vocal genre - a plaintive song (the term itself comes from the name of the ancient Greek instrument that accompanied this song).
However, later the term “elegy” began to designate works of various fields of art: in music - small instrumental works of a sad, mournful nature, in poetry - short lyrical poems expressing sadness. This genre became widespread among sentimentalists. Gray's "Elegy Written in a Rural Cemetery" had a strong impact not only on English poetry, but also on the work of German, French and Russian poets, in particular V. A. Zhukovsky.
The genre of elegy was addressed by I. Goethe, F. Schiller, A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, who filled these poems with deep philosophical thoughts, sincere, excited feelings and experiences. Such, for example, is the elegy of A. S. Pushkin “The faded joy of crazy years...” (1830), imbued with the sadness of days gone by and heavy forebodings.
Some works of N. A. Nekrasov and others are close to the genre of elegy (some works of N. A. Nekrasov and others. However, in the poetry of critical realism it gradually loses its specific specific features. The content of even the most mournful lyrical poems of these poets is not limited to only regret about personal losses, they reflect social contradictions. The elegy also acquires a social character. Such, for example, is the poem “In Memory of Dobrolyubov” by Nekrasov. In it, the bitterness about the untimely death of a young talented friend results in the poet’s civil grief about the loss of one of the best sons of the Motherland.
In the literature of socialist realism, this genre in its classical form hardly develops. Very close in content to the elegy is the poem by V.V. Mayakovsky “To Comrade Nette - the Steamship and the Man.” It is filled with thoughts about the fate of a friend who died in the fight against enemies for Soviet power, and at the same time, it is imbued with optimism, faith in the immortality of heroes who gave their lives to the people. All this sharply contradicts the sad emotional mood that determined the specificity of this type.
During the era of the Great Patriotic War, intimate lyrics clearly showed those features that allow many of the poems to be classified as elegies (“With you and without you” by Simonov, “I was killed near Rzhev” by Tvardovsky, etc.). “Sadness, sadness, the bitterness of loss, a heart-squeezing feeling of pity - this is their emotional content,” writes modern researcher Kuzmichev. “But not only sadness or a bitter feeling determines their tone... The great truth of feeling in them is associated with deep anxiety for the fate of the fatherland " * . The poems of Y. Smelyakov, N. Zabolotsky, M. Svetlov, written in the post-war years, are also characterized by optimism and an indissoluble connection between the personal and the public.
* (I. Kuzmichev. Genres of Russian literature of the war years. Gorky, 1962, p. 166.)
Message
An epistle is a poem written in the form of an address, most often to a well-known person directly named by his own name. In it, poets express their thoughts and feelings caused by the events of the political, scientific, and literary struggle. In accordance with this, the main types of messages are distinguished: political ("To Chaadaev" by Pushkin), scientific (Lomonosov's message to Shuvalov "On the Benefits of Glass"), literary ("Epistole on Poetry" by Sumarokov). Also very common are humorous and satirical messages that are very close to epigrams and madrigals, but more extensive than them. (“Message to my servants” by Fonvizin). Poems of this genre are usually distinguished by their sincerity and wit.
The very form of address provides an opportunity to directly express views expressed to close friends and like-minded people. For all its specific “attachment” even to certain historical figures, each poetic message has a generalizing character. Many of them are so saturated with theoretical positions and polemics on scientific problems that they come close to treatises. This led to the classification of the message by some literary scholars as didactic poetry or journalism.
The emergence of the poetic message as an independent type of lyricism dates back to the time when Horace and Ovid appeared in Roman poetry with works of this genre. Poets of later literary eras (Voltaire, Rousseau, Goethe, etc.) also readily turned to him.
The flourishing of the message in Russian poetry is associated with the work of A. S. Pushkin and the Decembrist poets, who gave it an acute socio-political orientation, an agitational and propaganda character, and at the same time exceptional emotional intensity, a simple and elegant form. "Message to Siberia" by A. S. Pushkin and the response of the Decembrist A. I. Odoevsky ("The fiery sounds of prophetic strings...") belong to the masterpieces of this genre.
Researchers of Russian lyric poetry note a decline in interest in the message in the literature of the second half of the 19th century, believing that later poets used it mainly for the purpose of stylization. However, in Soviet poetry this genre received intensive development, acquiring a distinct concreteness and journalistic quality ("Message to the Proletarian Poets" by Mayakovsky, "Open Letter" by Simonov, etc.).
Epigram
In its volume, and most importantly in its content, the epigram differs sharply from odes, elegies and epistles. This is what is now called laconic satirical or humorous poems directed against a specific person or event. These works are distinguished by their unique composition. They usually consist of two parts - a premise that conveys the signs of the person or event mentioned in the poem, and a short final joke (French point), which, with its surprise, accuracy, and aphorism, determines the meaning of the epigram. Such, for example, is the famous epigram of A. S. Pushkin to Count M. S. Vorontsov (1824):
Half my lord, half merchant, Half sage, half ignorant, Half scoundrel, but there is hope That will be complete at last.
The epigram has a complex, centuries-old history. In ancient Greek poetry, this was the name given to inscriptions on monuments to the dead or on any objects (the word “epigram” itself in ancient Greek means “inscription”).
Ancient epigrams were distinguished by a special rhythm: the first line was a hexameter, the second - a pentameter. Subsequently, epigrams in ancient poetry began to be called any poems corresponding to this poetic form (elegiac distich). The so-called anthological epigrams, which are short poems of a philosophical nature, written in elegiac distich, originate from them. They were also created in Russian poetry of the 19th century. An example of an anthological epigram is a poem by A. S. Pushkin, addressed to N. I. Gnedich, the translator of Homer’s Iliad:
I hear the silenced sound of the divine Hellenic speech, I feel the shadow of the Great Elder with a confused soul *.
* (A. S. Pushkin, Poly. collection soch., vol. 3, p. 183.)
Another type of epigram - satirical - received more intensive development. Researchers consider the founders of this genre to be the Roman poets Martial and Catullus, creators of caustic and witty poems with unexpected endings. Many French and German poets of the 18th-19th centuries turned to this genre, including J. Lafontaine, I. Goethe, F. Schiller.
The heyday of this genre in Russian poetry dates back to the first third of the 19th century. Became widespread since the end of the 17th century. in our literature, varieties of epigrams - everyday, political, literary - during this period became a sharp weapon in the struggle of progressive poets against the reactionary phenomena of Russian reality. This is A. S. Pushkin’s sharply accusatory epigram on Tsar Alexander I.
In the middle and second half of the 19th century. The role of the epigram in the literary and political struggle in Russia begins to weaken in connection with the emergence and development of those satirical and journalistic genres (feuilletons, pamphlets, etc.), which made it possible to more definitely and purposefully expose the enemies of freedom. However, even during this period, witty epigrams were created by N. A. Nekrasov, N. P. Ogarev, M. Mikhailov and other representatives of revolutionary democracy. In the last decades of the 19th century. the epigram is “shredded”, responding only to minor everyday issues or insignificant phenomena of literary life.
The revival of the epigram in Russian poetry is associated with the work of poets of socialist realism. Even in the pre-October years, D. Bedny successfully used this genre to expose representatives of autocratic-bourgeois Russia. In Soviet poetry, the epigram was successfully developed by V. V. Mayakovsky, S. Ya. Marshak, M. Svetlov. A. Bezymensky, S. Smirnov, E. Krotky and other satirists turn to this genre.
In the literature of recent years, there has been a close convergence of the epigram with the caption of a friendly cartoon and with the so-called short fable.
A very necessary and useful lesson! :)) At least it was very useful to me.The concepts of “genus”, type”, “genre”
A literary genus is a series of literary works that are similar in the type of their speech organization and cognitive focus on an object or subject, or the act of artistic expression itself.
The division of literature into genera is based on the distinction of the functions of the word: the word either depicts the objective world, or expresses the state of the speaker, or reproduces the process of verbal communication.
Traditionally, three literary types are distinguished, each of which corresponds to a specific function of the word:
epic (visual function);
lyrics (expressive function);
drama (communicative function).
Target:
The portrayal of the human personality is objective, in interaction with other people and events.
Item:
The external world in its plastic volume, spatio-temporal extent and event intensity: characters, circumstances, social and natural environment in which the characters interact.
Content:
The objective content of reality in its material and spiritual aspects, presented in characters and circumstances artistically typified by the author.
The text has a predominantly descriptive-narrative structure; a special role is played by the system of object-visual details.
Target:
Expression of thoughts and feelings of the author-poet.
Item:
The inner world of the individual in its impulsiveness and spontaneity, the formation and change of impressions, dreams, moods, associations, meditations, reflections caused by interaction with the outside world.
Content:
The subjective inner world of the poet and the spiritual life of humanity.
Features of the art organization speeches:
The text is characterized by increased expressiveness; a special role is played by the figurative capabilities of the language, its rhythmic and sound organization.
Target:
A depiction of the human personality in action, in conflict with other people.
Item:
The outer world, presented through the characters and purposeful actions of the characters, and the inner world of the heroes.
Content:
The objective content of reality, presented in characters and circumstances artistically typified by the author and presupposing stage embodiment.
Features of the art organization speeches:
The text has a predominantly dialogic structure, which includes monologues of the characters.
Literary type is a stable type of poetic structure within a literary genre.
Genre is a group of works within a literary type, united by common formal, content or functional characteristics. Each literary era and movement has its own specific system of genres.
Epic: types and genres
Large forms:
Epic;
Novel (Novel genres: Family-domestic, Social-psychological, Philosophical, Historical, Fantastic, Utopian novel, Educational novel, Romance novel, Adventure novel, Travel novel, Lyric-epic (novel in verse))
Epic novel;
Epic poem.
Medium forms:
Tale (story genres: Family-household, Socio-psychological, Philosophical, Historical, Fantastic, Fairy-tale, Adventure, Tale in verse);
Poem (poem genres: Epic, Heroic, Lyrical, Lyric-epic, Dramatic, Ironic-comic, Didactic, Satirical, Burlesque, Lyric-dramatic (romantic));
Small forms:
Story (story genres: Essay (descriptive-narrative, “moral-descriptive”), Novellistic (conflict-narrative);
Novella;
Fairy tale (fairy tale genres: Magical, Social-everyday, Satirical, Socio-political, Lyrical, Fantastic, Animalistic, Scientific-educational);
Fable;
Essay (essay genres: Fiction, Journalistic, Documentary).
An epic is a monumental in form epic work of national issues.
A novel is a large form of epic, a work with a detailed plot, in which the narrative is focused on the destinies of several individuals in the process of their formation, development and interaction, unfolded in an artistic space and time sufficient to convey the “organization” of the world and analyze its historical essence. Being an epic of private life, the novel presents individual and public life as relatively independent elements, not exhaustive and not absorbing each other. The story of individual fate in the novel takes on a general, substantial meaning.
A story is the middle form of an epic, a work with a chronicle plot, as a rule, in which the narrative is focused on the fate of an individual in the process of its formation and development.
Poem - a large or medium-sized poetic work with a narrative or lyrical plot; in various genre modifications it reveals its synthetic nature, combining moral descriptive and heroic principles, intimate experiences and great historical upheavals, lyrical-epic and monumental tendencies.
A short story is a small epic form of fiction, small in terms of the volume of life phenomena depicted, and hence in terms of the volume of text, a prose work.
A short story is a small prose genre comparable in volume to a short story, but differs from it in its sharp centripetal plot, often paradoxical, lack of descriptiveness and compositional rigor.
A literary fairy tale is an author’s artistic prose or poetic work, based either on folklore sources, or purely original; The work is predominantly fantastic, magical, depicting the wonderful adventures of fictional or traditional fairy-tale characters, in which magic, miracle plays the role of a plot-forming factor, and serves as the main starting point for characterization.
A fable is a small form of epic of a didactic nature, a short story in verse or prose with a directly formulated moral conclusion, giving the story an allegorical meaning. The existence of the fable is universal: it is applicable to different occasions. The artistic world of fables includes a traditional range of images and motifs (animals, plants, schematic figures of people, instructive plots), often colored in tones of comedy and social criticism.
An essay is a type of small form of epic literature, differing from a short story and a short story in the absence of a single, quickly resolved conflict and the greater development of a descriptive image. The essay touches not so much on the problems of developing the character of an individual in its conflicts with the established social environment, but rather on the problems of the civil and moral state of the “environment” and has great cognitive diversity.
Lyrics: thematic groups and genres
Thematic groups:
Meditative lyrics
Intimate lyrics
(friendly and love lyrics)
Landscape lyrics
Civil (socio-political) lyrics
Philosophical lyrics
Genres:
Oh yeah
Hymn
Elegy
Idyll
Sonnet
Song
Romance
Dithyramb
Madrigal
Thought
Message
Epigram
Ballad
Ode is the leading genre of high style, characteristic primarily of the poetry of classicism. The ode is distinguished by canonical themes (glorification of God, fatherland, life wisdom, etc.), techniques (“quiet” or “swift” attack, the presence of digressions, permitted “lyrical disorder”) and types (spiritual odes, solemn odes - “pindaric”, moralizing - “Horatian”, love - “Anacreontic”).
The anthem is a solemn song based on programmatic verses.
Elegy is a genre of lyric poetry, a poem of medium length, meditative or emotional content (usually sad), most often in the first person, without a distinct composition.”
Idyll is a genre of lyricism, a small work that depicts an eternally beautiful nature, sometimes in contrast with a restless and vicious person, a peaceful virtuous life in the lap of nature, etc.
A sonnet is a poem of 14 lines forming 2 quatrains and 2 tercets or 3 quatrains and 1 couplet. The following types of sonnets are known:
“French” sonnet - abba abba ccd eed (or ccd ede);
“Italian” sonnet - abab abab cdc dcd (or cde cde);
“English sonnet” - abab cdcd efef gg.
The Wreath of Sonnets is a cycle of 14 sonnets, in which the first verse of each repeats the last verse of the previous one (forming a “garland”), and together these first verses form the 15th, “main” sonnet (forming a glossa).
Romance is a short poem written for solo singing with instrumental accompaniment, the text of which is characterized by melodious melody, syntactic simplicity and harmony, completeness of the sentence within the boundaries of the stanza.
Dithyramb is a genre of ancient lyric poetry that arose as a choral song, a hymn in honor of the god Dionysus, or Bacchus, and later in honor of other gods and heroes.
Madrigal is a short poem of predominantly loving and complimentary (less often abstract and meditative) content, usually with a paradoxical sharpening at the end.
Duma is a lyric-epic song, the style of which is characterized by symbolic pictures, negative parallelisms, retardation, tautological phrases, and unity of command.
An epistle is a genre of lyricism, a poetic letter, the formal sign of which is the presence of an appeal to a specific addressee and, accordingly, such motives as requests, wishes, exhortation, etc. The content of the message according to tradition (from Horace) is mainly moral, philosophical and didactic, but there were numerous messages: narrative, panegyric, satirical, love, etc.
An epigram is a short satirical poem, usually with a sharp point at the end.
A ballad is a poem with a dramatic development of the plot, which is based on an extraordinary story that reflects the essential moments of interactions between a person and society or interpersonal relationships. The characteristic features of a ballad are a small volume, a tense plot, usually full of tragedy and mystery, abrupt narration, dramatic dialogue, melodiousness and musicality.
Synthesis of lyrics with other types of literature
Lyric-epic genres (types) - literary and artistic works that combine the features of epic and lyric poetry; the plot narration of events is combined in them with emotional and meditative statements of the narrator, creating an image of the lyrical “I”. The connection between the two principles can act as the unity of the theme, as the narrator’s self-reflection, as the psychological and everyday motivation of the story, as the author’s direct participation in the unfolding plot, as the author’s exposure of his own techniques, becoming an element of the artistic concept. Compositionally, this connection is often formalized in the form of lyrical digressions.
A prose poem is a lyrical work in prose form that has such characteristics of a lyric poem as a small volume, increased emotionality, usually a plotless composition, and a general focus on expressing a subjective impression or experience.
A lyrical hero is the image of a poet in lyric poetry, one of the ways to reveal the author’s consciousness. A lyrical hero is an artistic “double” of the author-poet, growing out of the text of lyrical compositions (a cycle, a book of poems, a lyric poem, the entire body of lyrics) as a clearly defined figure or life role, as a person endowed with the certainty of individual destiny, the psychological clarity of the inner world, and sometimes with features of plastic appearance.
Forms of lyrical expression:
monologue in the first person (A.S. Pushkin - “I loved you...”);
role-playing lyrics - a monologue on behalf of the character introduced into the text (A.A. Blok - “I am Hamlet, / The blood runs cold...”);
expression of the author’s feelings and thoughts through an object image (A.A. Fet - “The lake fell asleep...”);
expression of the author’s feelings and thoughts through reflections in which objective images play a subordinate role or are fundamentally conditional (A.S. Pushkin - “Echo”);
expression of the author’s feelings and thoughts through the dialogue of conventional heroes (F. Villon - “The dispute between Villon and his soul”);
addressing an unidentified person (F.I. Tyutchev - “Silentium”);
plot (M.Yu. Lermontov - “Three Palms”).
Tragedy - “Tragedy of Rock”, “High Tragedy”;
Comedy - Comedy of characters, Comedy of everyday life (morals), Comedy of situations, Comedy of masks (commedia del’arte), Comedy of intrigue, Comedy-slapstick, Lyrical comedy, Satirical comedy, Social comedy, “High comedy”;
Drama (type) - “Pittish Drama”, Psychological Drama, Lyrical Drama, Narrative (Epic) Drama;
Tragicomedy;
Mystery;
Melodrama;
Vaudeville;
Farce.
Tragedy is a type of drama based on the insoluble conflict of heroic characters with the world and its tragic outcome. The tragedy is marked by stern seriousness, depicts reality in the most pointed way, as a clot of internal contradictions, reveals the deepest conflicts of reality in an extremely intense and rich form, acquiring the meaning of an artistic symbol.
Comedy is a type of drama in which characters, situations and action are presented in funny forms or imbued with the comic. Comedy is aimed primarily at ridiculing the ugly (contrary to a social ideal or norm): the heroes of the comedy are internally bankrupt, incongruous, do not correspond to their position, purpose, and thus are sacrificed to laughter, which debunks them, thereby fulfilling its “ideal” mission.
Drama (type) is one of the main types of drama as a literary genre, along with tragedy and comedy. Like comedy, it mainly reproduces the private life of people, but its main goal is not to ridicule morals, but to depict the individual in his dramatic relationship with society. Like tragedy, drama tends to recreate acute contradictions; at the same time, its conflicts are not so intense and inescapable and, in principle, allow for the possibility of a successful resolution, and the characters are not so exceptional.
Tragicomedy is a type of drama that has characteristics of both tragedy and comedy. The tragicomic attitude that underlies tragicomedy is associated with a sense of the relativity of existing life criteria and the rejection of the moral absolute of comedy and tragedy. Tragicomedy does not recognize the absolute at all; the subjective here can be seen as objective and vice versa; a sense of relativity can lead to complete relativism; overestimation of moral principles may come down to uncertainty in their omnipotence or to the final rejection of solid morality; an unclear understanding of reality can cause burning interest in it or complete indifference; it can result in less certainty in displaying the laws of existence or indifference to them and even their denial - up to the recognition of the illogicality of the world.
Mystery is a genre of Western European theater of the late Middle Ages, the content of which was biblical stories; religious scenes alternated with interludes, mysticism was combined with realism, piety with blasphemy.
Melodrama is a type of drama, a play with acute intrigue, exaggerated emotionality, a sharp contrast between good and evil, and a moral and instructive tendency.
Vaudeville is a type of drama, a light play with entertaining intrigue, with couplet songs and dances.
Farce is a type of folk theater and literature of Western European countries of the 14th-16th centuries, primarily France, which was distinguished by a comic, often satirical orientation, realistic concreteness, freethinking and was full of buffoonery.
