Union- this is an auxiliary part of speech that serves for communication:
- homogeneous members of the sentence;
- parts of a complex sentence;
- individual sentences in the text;
- paragraphs of text.
2. Unions do not change.
3. They are not members of the proposal.
Types of unions
1. By education:
- non-derivatives, that is, those that are not related in origin to other parts of speech: a, but, or, yes and ;
- derivatives, educated:
2. By structure:
- simple(written without spaces): ah, because;
- composite(written with one or more spaces): since, while.
3. By the nature of the syntactic relations expressed by them:
- essay,
- subordinates.
Learn more about coordinating and subordinating conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions- these are unions that connect only equal components, i.e.:
- homogeneous members offers;
- parts of a complex sentence;
- sentences in the text;
- paragraphs of text.
Coordinating conjunctions have the following ranks by value:
1) connecting(meaning “both this and that”): and, yes(meaning “and”), neither...nor, as...so and, and...and, not only...but also, as...so and, too, also ;
2) dividing(meaning “either this or that”): or, either, then...that, not that...not that, or...or, either...or;
3) adversative(meaning “not this, but that”): ah, but, yes(meaning “but”), however, but.
4) gradational: not only... but also, not so much... as, not really... but;
5)explanatory: that is, namely;
6) connecting: too, also, yes and, and, moreover, and.
Note. Only the first three categories are studied at school.
Subordinating conjunctions- these are unions that unite unequal components and indicate the dependence of one of these components on the other. They tie
- parts of a complex sentence
- can also be used in a simple sentence to connect homogeneous and heterogeneous members. So, for example, a subordinating conjunction Although connects homogeneous members of a sentence: The book is interesting, although a little long; unions How, as if, as if, than connect homogeneous and heterogeneous members of a sentence: In winter, the night is longer than the day; The pond is like a mirror.
The following are distinguished: categories of subordinating conjunctions by meaning:
1) temporary: when, while, barely, only, while;
2) causal: since, because, for(outdated / bookish);
3) conditional: if, if only(obsolete), if(obsolete);
4) targeted: so that, in order to, with that purpose to, so that(obsolete);
5) concessionary: although, despite the fact that;
6) consequences: So;
7)comparative: as, as if, as if, exactly, than, as if;
8) explanatory: what, how, to.
Note. Some conjunctions are ambiguous and can be classified into several categories, for example: to(target and explanatory), When(temporary and conditional).
Morphological analysis and the union
The union is dismantled as follows scheme:
1. Part of speech.
2. Permanent signs:
mutable/immutable,
rank by value,
simple / compound,
it connects.
Sample morphological analysis of the union:
We all jumped out of our chairs, But again a surprise: the noise of many steps was heard, which meant What the hostess returned not alone, it was really strange because she herself appointed this hour.
(F.M. Dostoevsky)
But
What- conjunction, unchangeable, subordinating, explanatory, simple, connects parts of a complex sentence;
A- conjunction, unchangeable, coordinating, adversative, simple, connects parts of a complex sentence;
because- conjunction, unchangeable, subordinating, cause, compound, connects parts of a complex sentence.
Additionally:
Source:
- modernlib.ru — Litnevskaya E.I. "Russian language: A short theoretical course for schoolchildren."
Additional sources:
- ru.wikipedia.org - article “Union (part of speech)”;
- lik-bez.com - article “Union as part of speech”;
- licey.net - article “Union. Morphological analysis of the union. Spelling of conjunctions";
- collection.edu.yar.ru - links to materials about the union as a part of speech.
Additionally on Guenon:
Hello. This lecture will be devoted to unions and their types. First, let's look at what a union is.
So everyone knows that conjunction-functional part of speech. And the auxiliary parts of speech, in turn, do not change grammatically and are not parts of the sentence (as younger schoolchildren say: “They are not underlined”), unlike allied words. But we will talk about allied words later.
Now about the meaning of such a part of speech as a union. The meaning of conjunctions is that it connects parts of a complex sentence; can connect sentences in the text (for example, in literary texts we often see that words in sentences begin with conjunctions); also connects homogeneous members in a simple sentence.
Classification of unions can be varied due to the fact that you can choose different classifier characteristics. For example, conjunctions can be simple or compound. Simple ones, as a rule, consist of one word (and some may even be a syllable), compound ones have more complex structure. A large number of compounds are words that have passed into the category of conjunctions, which are in themselves independent parts speech. (As an example, let’s take the conjunction “despite the fact that” - consists of 4 words, and despite the gerund, the pronoun, the preposition). Examples of simple conjunctions are a, yes, and, only, whether, but, that, so, once, as, after all, than, at least, so that, let. Also classified as simple are conjunctions with a frozen form of a word related to the significant part of speech - for example, so that, rather than, that is, if, etc. Examples of compound conjunctions: due to the fact that, perhaps, so, especially since, then that, despite the fact that, somehow suddenly, just that, as if, as for example, since, just like , without, in order to, in order to, then in order to, for the sake of, for the purpose that, in case, in case, earlier than, as soon as, just now, only, barely, barely.
It can be classified according to other criteria. Some words can only be conjunctions, while others can also be, for example, a preposition or a pronoun or some other part of speech. The first include: will, if, so that, either, but, rather than, if, for, since. It is not difficult to guess that this group is small. The second group includes much larger number words
Most often, when we talk about the classification of conjunctions, we are dealing with classification by meaning.
There are:
- Coordinating conjunctions.
- Subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating ones are also divided into connecting ones (these conjunctions connect sentences or homogeneous words, and the connected sentences are equal) and subordinating ones (there is a relationship of dependence (subordination) between sentences or parts of a sentence).
Let's talk more about coordinating conjunctions. They are usually divided into:
- Connecting. Both this object and that one matter. Examples: and, yes (in the sense of and), also, as...and, neither....nor, too, not only... but also...
- Nasty. What matters is not this object, but this object. Examples: a, yes (meaning but), but, however...
- Separating. The meaning is either this object or that one. Examples: or, either, or...or, either...or,
Subordinating conjunctions are divided into (it is easy to notice the connection between the categories of conjunctions and types subordinating connection in SPP):
- Explanatory. Examples: what, as if, to.
- Circumstantial.
The detailed ones are divided into:
- Temporary: when, while, while, as soon as...
- Goals: in order to, in order to.
- Conditions: if.
- Concessions: despite the fact that, although.
- Consequences: so.
- Reasons: because, because, since.
- Comparisons: as if, as if, as if.
1. Conjunction as a part of speech.
2. Meanings of conjunctions.
3. Syntactic relations expressed by conjunctions.
4. Types of unions by structure.
§ 1. Conjunction as a part of speech.
Conjunctions are function words that express syntactic relationships between members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence and individual sentences: 1) His mother listened to his weak, shudderingAnd brittle voice. His speech flowed heavily,But free(Bitter). Unions and, but connect homogeneous members of a sentence. 2) The sky was still grayBut there was no rain,And the sun appeared through a dense veil of clouds(N. Nikitin). Unions but also connect parts of a complex sentence. 3) The intention to find his son did not leave him.But it ripened in fits and starts—then the heart would ache, then it would quiet down and be forgotten(Fedin). Union But connects individual sentences.
Unions occupy a strictly defined place in the sentence, but are not members of the sentence. Like prepositions, they express a variety of syntactic relations.
Being unchangeable words, conjunctions do not have special morphological indicators for expressing syntactic relations and are not used in morphology. Conjunctions are not isolated from other categories of words. They are formed on the basis various parts speech (pronouns, adverbs, modal words and particles, etc.). In modern Russian, the replenishment of conjunctions at the expense of other parts of speech is a living and active process. In this regard, “in the Russian language, the categories of hybrid or transitional words and expressions that combine the meanings of conjunctions with the meanings of other grammatical categories are expanding and multiplying.” Thus, they uniquely combine the meanings of modal words and conjunctions on the contrary, true, nevertheless, as if, exactly, at the same time, besides etc., meanings of adverbs and conjunctions then, but, barely, for now, for now etc. It is not always easy to draw the boundaries of polysemy and homonymy here, as evidenced by the materials of explanatory dictionaries.
Finally, conjunctions can move into other parts of speech. For example, union But , denoting “objection, obstacle”, used as an indeclinable noun: There is a smallBut . NoneBut -follow the order.
Many independent words relating to different parts of speech (conjunctive, relative words) are used in the function of conjunctions: who, what, how many, which, which, whose, where, where, when, why, where, why and etc.
§ 2. Meanings of conjunctions.
Conjunctions express abstract syntactic relations. Their semantics, as well as the semantics of prepositions, combines lexical and grammatical meanings. Grammatical (categorical) meaning conjunctions are a general indication of the connection between syntactic units and the nature of the syntactic connection between them. According to their grammatical meanings, conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating.
Lexical meaning conjunctions are an indication of specific types of syntactic relationships. These are spatial, temporal, target, causal, defining, comparative, etc. meanings and their shades. For example, in the dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov the union or characterized as follows: “1. dividing Connects two or more sentences, as well as homogeneous members of a sentence that are in a mutually exclusive relationship. Heor I. IL and she will leaveor you won't see me again... 2. connecting. Usage when adding the last member of the enumeration, when adding to the previous one. Look carefully on the table, on the shelvesor in the closet. 3. adversarial. Otherwise, otherwise. Go awayor I'll tell you too much. 4. interrogative. Usage at the beginning of the sentence in meaning. really, really(colloquial). Or you don't know about this?... 5. explanatory. Usage to combine different names of one concept into a meaning. "otherwise". Airplane, or airplane".
Lexical polysemy is especially developed among simple, non-derivative conjunctions. The range of relationships they express is very wide. The weakness of the lexical and morphological weight of such conjunctions is compensated by their semantic-syntactic load. For example, in the dictionary ed. D. N. Ushakov Union Yes fixed in connecting (DayYes night-a day away. Proverb), connecting (Shel I one,Yes still at night) adversative (The crow perched on a spruce tree, was just about ready to have breakfast,Yes thought about it. Krylov) meanings; And used in connective (She forgot the shameAnd honor. Pushkin), connecting (Yesterday I received a money transfer,And very useful, because I was sitting without money), enumerative (AND nspach, And arrow, And the crafty dagger spares the winner for years. Pushkin), narrative (Once upon a time there were three brothers,And they lived very poorly.AND found a mountain of gold. Fairy tale), amplification (AND This scoundrel dares to claim his integrity! Pushkin), concessive (AND I want to go to a friend, but there’s no time) adversative (Man,And crying!) values.
Subordinating conjunctions are also ambiguous: conjunction What expresses comparative, temporal, explanatory, quantitative, investigative, causal meanings, How : temporary, comparative, conditional, causal, connecting and other meanings.
Before we start studying the topic “Coordinating Conjunctions,” let’s consider in which section of the Russian language they are included. In the Russian language there are functional parts of speech, where particles, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives are studied. They do not have a nominative function, i.e. do not name objects, signs, phenomena, but help express the relationships between them. In a sentence they are not members and are used as a formal grammatical means of the language. They have no accent, they are unchangeable and morphologically indivisible.
Unions
Conjunctions connect homogeneous members of simple sentences and parts of a complex sentence. They are coordinating and subordinating.
Homogeneous members of a sentence and parts of a complex sentence can connect coordinating conjunctions.
Unions and their groups
According to their meaning, these unions are divided into the following groups:
1. Connecting: and, yes (and), neither...nor, and...and. For example: Write And read in Russian. It rained all day And the wind continued to whistle outside the window. And he listens to everything Yes shakes his head. Neither wind, neither storm, neither the thunder couldn't keep him from going. AND first, And second, And the third was served on the table without delay.
2. Opposite: a, but, yes (but), but, however, the same. For example: My father told me A the whole family listened attentively. Today is cloudy, But warm. Small, Yes remote. It was difficult there but very interesting. The officer approached the building, however I was in no hurry to enter the entrance.
3. Dividers: or, or...or, either, or...or, then...that, or...or, not that...not that. For example: Either Sun, either snow, either love you either No. Be or not to be? Wet dogs wandered around or sat waiting for food. Or I had to go forward or stay and wait. Sharp gusts of wind That plucked leaves from trees, That bent the branches to the ground.
4. Comparative: both...and; not only but). For example: Guests How arrived unexpectedly so and suddenly they left. They visited Not only in Moscow, But and in Kyiv.
5. Connecting: yes and, also, too. For example: We study, adults study Same. He laughed, we Also it became fun. We were praised for our work yes and for the children too
They differ:
Singles: But...
Recurring: and...and, or...or, either...either, neither...nor...
Double: both...and, not only..., but also...
Spelling coordinating conjunctions. Punctuation marks
A comma is placed before the conjunction And when it connects parts of a complex sentence.
Before the union And a comma is not used if it connects two parts of a sentence.
When repeating the union And a comma is placed after each part of the sentence it connects.
Before opposing alliances a, but, yes (but) is always put with a comma: The sky was cloudy, But there was no rain anymore. We went to the commandant, A the son went into the room. Small spool Yes expensive
The conjunctions are written together: too, also, but. To make sure that too, also, but unions are needed instead too, also substitute an alliance And, and instead but- union But. If such a stand is possible, then these are conjunctions and they need to be written together.
1. I Same wrote, but also in Same(pronoun That and particle same) listened carefully for a while.
2. Poet Also sang well. They all Also(adverb So and particle same) every day they wait for letters from children.
3. Hide for that(pretext behind And demonstrative pronoun That) tree. We worked a lot but everyone's finished.
Conclusion
Sentences with coordinating conjunctions are very widely used in scientific, colloquial, and official vocabulary of the Russian language. They make our speech rich and interesting.
), which is used to express the syntactic (coordinating or subordinating) connection of units of different nature and volume, from clauses ( Research continues and hypotheses multiply[“Knowledge is power” (2003)]) to phrases ( Apples and prunes are traditionally served with goose[Recipes national cuisines(2000-2005)]) and even components of words ( two- and three-story houses). Conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions prototypically connect clauses (although a connection between a word and a clause is possible ( The decisive argument was the fact that the Germans did the same to the French in 1940["Domestic Notes" (2003)]) and words with the word ( Petya is smarter than Vasya)), and coordinating - any homogeneous components (word and word, word and clause, clause and clause). Unlike the preposition, which is functionally close to the subordinating conjunction, the conjunction does not assign a case.
Conjunctions are classified on a number of formal and semantic grounds: by formal structure, by syntactic and semantic properties, by their ability to be used illocutionarily (see Illocutionary uses of conjunctions):
Classification of unions by formal structure (I)
Classification of unions by formal structure (II)
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Classification of conjunctions according to syntactic and semantic properties
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Classification of conjunctions according to their ability to be used illocutionarily
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Etymologically, many Russian conjunctions come from prepositional-pronominal and prepositional-nominal phrases ( because while), less often - from participial forms of the verb ( Although) Many conjunctions are polysemic and sometimes belong in other meanings to other parts of speech, primarily to particles ( yes, and at least barely) and pronouns ( what how); sometimes significant parts of speech are used as conjunctions ( Truth), which significantly complicates their statistics.
In some cases, a word traditionally classified as a conjunction (see lists of conjunctions below) has in one sense or another intermediate properties (conjunction and particle, conjunction and preposition, coordinating and subordinating conjunction, simple and compound conjunction). In these cases, in the absence of more detailed research, the assignment of a word to conjunctions or to one or another class of conjunctions should be considered to some extent conditional.
Unions should be distinguished from the so-called. allied words (pronominal words that connect parts of a complex sentence and are at the same time members of the sentence).
The lists of conjunctions in this article are given according to the Academic Grammar 1954 [Grammar 1954: 665–673] and the Academic Grammar 1980 [Grammar 1980: §§1673–1683].
The term "union" is a translation from the Greek. syndesmos and lat. conjunctio.
1. Formal classes of unions
Conjunctions are traditionally divided into simple (see) (consisting of one word) and compound () (consisting of more than one word). This division, although in most cases there are purely spelling conventions behind it, is also given in this article.
Based on how many conjuncts are connected by a conjunction and which of them are marked with a conjunction indicator, conjunctions are divided into:
1.1. Simple vs. compound unions
1.1.1. Simple conjunctions
Simple conjunctions consist of one, usually one- or two-syllable word.
List of simple conjunctions [Grammar 1980: §1673]: a, anyhow, as much, an, good, it will be, as if, like, yes, so that, even, barely, if, if, then, but, and, for, or, so, if, how, when, if, if, whether, either, only, rather than, but, while, for the time being, as long as, since, moreover, moreover, let, let, once, perhaps, exactly, that is, as if, so, also, also, only, exactly, although, although, than, purely, that, so that, slightly, supposedly.
1.1.2. Complex or compound conjunctions
Complex, or compound, conjunctions consist of two or more words that semantically represent one unit. The formation of most compound unions involves:
Some complex conjunctions, for example because, because, due to the fact that, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, in view of the fact that, then that; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; as, after, since, just as, in case, in order to and some others allow different punctuation - a comma is placed either before the entire conjunction or before the word what / how / to / if:
(1) Almost all gardeners although this was not officially permitted; a strip of land about two meters wide was plowed in front of the fence on the street side, and potatoes grew on it. [A. Varlamov. Kupavna (2000)]
(2) <…>many issuers from list A could leave it and pension funds I would have to sell these papers although they are reliable and promising. [A. Verzhbitsky. Pensioners' assets will be preserved (2010)]
In the terminology of AG-80 [Grammar 1980(2): §2949], the first option is called “undivided”, the second – “dismembered”.
Different punctuation reflects a certain semantic difference between the dissected and unsegmented variants: in the first case, the meaning corresponding to the main clause is included in the meaning of the complex sentence as a presumption. Accordingly, this meaning does not fall within the scope of various types of modal operators. Wed:
(3) a. Shekhtel came to Moscow because
b. Perhaps Shekhtel ended up in Moscow because
When (3a) is included in the scope of the modal word Maybe the meaning of ‘Shekhtel got to Moscow’ remains unaffected by the epistemic modality expressed by this word, i.e. (3b) does not imply ‘it is possible that Shekhtel ended up in Moscow’.
For a similar sentence with undivided because This statement is incorrect:
(4) a. Shekhtel ended up in Moscow, because his mother was the Tretyakovs' housekeeper. ["Izvestia" (2002)]
b. Perhaps Shekhtel ended up in Moscow, because his mother was the Tretyakovs' housekeeper.
1.1.2.1. Simple conjunctions within compounds
Below are the main simple unions with the participation of which complex unions are formed. At the same time, the lists of complex conjunctions are not exhaustive; their purpose is to demonstrate the mechanism of word formation.
With the participation of the union What compound unions formed thanks to the fact that, no matter what, for nothing, then that, despite the fact that, not that, because, because, provided that, unless, so that, especially since, especially since, just.
With the participation of the union How compound unions formed all the same, as, while, before, as if, as suddenly, as if, as for example, as soon as, meanwhile, before, likewise, as, after just like, because, just like, just like, almost like, just like, just like, just like, just like, since, since, whereas, exactly like.
With the participation of the union to compound unions formed without, not, instead of, in order to, then so that, not that, for the sake of, for the purpose of, so that.
With the participation of the union If unions formed if, if not, as if, in case.
With the participation of unions how, than unions formed whatever, earlier than, before; before.
With the participation of unions only, only unions formed barely, as soon as, just, just barely, just barely, barely, just, just barely.
1.1.2.2. Prepositions as part of compound conjunctions
Conjunctions are formed with the participation of prepositions in view of the fact that, instead of, in spite of the fact that, in relation to the fact that, up to the fact that, in contrast to the fact that, in contrast to the fact that, as a result of the fact that, like the fact that, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that that, due to the fact that, in comparison with the fact that, due to the fact that, based on the fact that, in addition to the fact that, on the basis of the fact that, along with the fact that, regarding the fact that, in spite of the fact that, unlike how , regardless of that, despite the fact that, regarding that, under the guise of that, just as, under the pretext that, as, in addition to that, regarding the fact that, due to the fact that, after that how, in comparison with that, in addition to that, depending on the fact that, judging by the fact that.
1.1.2.3. Particles in compound unions
With the participation of particles would, no, really unions formed as if, good, if, if, as if, as if, as if, when, if, if only, as if, if only, even if, that, and not, than, as if not, not yet, not yet, not yet, not that, not that, not that, if, when, if, since, since.
1.1.2.4. Adverbs in complex conjunctions
Conjunctions are formed with the participation of adverbs: for nothing that, Suddenly, as soon as, before, just like, as well as, earlier than, just like, especially, nevertheless, exactly-V-exactly like.
1.1.2.5. Pronouns in complex conjunctions
With the participation of a pronominal noun That The following unions were formed: otherwise, and even then, or even, otherwise, yes even then, not really, I mean, that is, either, due to the fact that, thanks to, similar to, while, although, especially since, meanwhile, before as. With the participation of a pronominal adjective That union formed since.
1.2. Single, double and repeating conjunctions
1.2.1. Single unions
The vast majority of conjunctions in the Russian language are single, they are found both among coordinating and subordinating ones. Single conjunctions are located between the connected parts of the text or are positionally adjacent to one of them:
(5) She came A he left; He left, because she came; He's tired And gone; Because the She came, he left.
List of simple single conjunctions (see also list Simple conjunctions(cm. )): a, anyhow, as much, an, good, be, as if, like, yes, so that, even, barely, if, if, then, then, and, for, or, so, if, as, as that, when, if, if, or, only, than, but, while, for the time being, as long as, since, moreover, moreover, let, let, once, perhaps, exactly, that is, as if, so, also, also, only, exactly, at least, although, than, purely, that, so that, slightly, supposedly.
List of compound single unions: and not that, and that, and and that, and then and, and not, and not that, without not, thanks to the fact that, as if, be it, in view of the fact that, instead of, in spite of the fact that, in in relation to the fact that, up to the point that, in contrast to the fact that, in contrast to the fact that, as a result of the fact that, like that, anyway, anyway, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that , in case, in comparison with the fact that, while, and even then, for nothing that, in order that, good, until, until, until, barely, hardly only, if, if would, if, if not, due to the fact that, then what, then so that, based on the fact that, as if, as if, as if, as if not, how suddenly, as if, as for example, how- then, as soon as, whenever, when already, if only, if only, if only, in the meantime, on the basis of the fact that, along with the fact that, in case if, about that that, despite the fact that, not as an example of how, regardless of the fact that, despite the fact that, not that, not that, not that, but not, regarding that, because, before, under the guise that, just as, under the pretext that, not yet, not yet, not yet, as, in addition to the fact that, regarding the fact that, due to the fact that, after, in comparison with the fact that, because, because, before, before, on condition that, simply as, just like, just as, just as, in order that, unless, since, before than, in addition to that, as if, depending on the fact that, just like, since, for the purpose that, judging by the fact that, since, so that, so that, especially since, all the more so, that is, whereas, that is, only if only, if only not, just, just, just like, even if, with whatever, whatever, so as not, just, just barely.
Not obvious from the point of view of the formal classification of conjunctions is a construction like Masha and Petya and Vanya, where, on the one hand, the coordinating conjunction And marks more than one conjunction, but on the other hand, does not mark all conjunctions. The first circumstance would seem to exclude this And from among single unions; the second excludes it from the number of repeating ones (see).
This article adopts the interpretation that in a design like Masha and Petya and Vanya features a repeat of a single And. This interpretation is justified by the fact that the specified construction in its semantic-syntactic properties is close to a single And, but not with repeating and... and. Yes, repetitive and... and, unlike a single one, is not used with a symmetrical predicate (for more details, see Coordinating conjunctions / paragraph 2. Repeating conjunctions), and this restriction does not apply to the construction under discussion. Wed: * Spanish, Italian, and French are all similar vs. Spanish and Italian and French are similar.
1.2.2. Double alliances
Double conjunctions are found among both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. They consist of two parts, each of which is located in one of two syntactically or semantically unequal parts connected.
Subordinating double conjunctions are characterized by syntactic inequality - one of the clauses is the main one (see Glossary), and the other is dependent (see Glossary):
(6) If the sauce won't be spicy enough That you can add ground red pepper [Recipes of national cuisines: Scandinavian cuisine (2000-2005)];
(7) I just guessed that If I wish I could save this woman That would be rewarded with some magical reward. [E. Grishkovets. Simultaneously (2004)]
(8) But barely he threw back the pillow, How found a cigarette case made of dark red transparent plastic [A. Solzhenitsyn]
Moreover, the second part of the union if... then may fall, especially in colloquial speech, provided that each of the clauses contains a subject:
(9) However, If you are tired and want to relax, we have such places here, like cafes and restaurants. ["Screen and Stage" (2004)]
(10) If the sauce will not be spicy enough, you can add ground red pepper
(11) *I just guessed that If If I saved this woman, I would be rewarded with some kind of magical reward.
Coordinating double conjunctions are characterized by semantic inequality of conjuncts: usually the second conjunct is more unexpected for the Speaker: He wasn't so much tired as he was upset; He was more angry than offended. In this way, double coordinating conjunctions differ from repeating ones, which assume equality of parts: He was both tired and upset(for more details, see Coordinating conjunctions / clause 3.2. Double conjunctions, Coordinating conjunctions / clause 2.1. Repeating conjunctions: Semantics, Coordinating conjunctions / clause 2.3. Repeating vs. double coordinating conjunctions).
Coordinating and subordinating double conjunctions have their own characteristics.
Double coordinating conjunctions usually connect not entire clauses, but homogeneous members, and consist of two parts, the first of which is placed before the first of the compared members, the second before the second: He is equally good at both the theoretical and practical sides of the matter.
Double subordinating conjunctions consist of two parts, the first of which is placed before the first clause, the second before the second: As soon as she entered, he stood up and left.
List of double unions: enough...that, barely...how..., if...then, if...then, if we talk about... (then), if not...then, how...so and, not only that... (also), not... ah, not... but, not to say that... (but), not as much... as, not only... but also, not that... but, rather... than, it was worth... how, only... how, than... it would be better, as for... (that), at least...otherwise.
1.2.3. Repeating conjunctions
Repeating conjunctions are found only among coordinating conjunctions. They are formed by reproducing the same or, less commonly, functionally similar components: and...and, or...or, then...then etc., which are placed before each of two or more equal and formally identical parts:
(12) I always had a dream that someone would appear who or will buy or will give or will give Spivakov a real violin for lifelong use. [WITH. Spivakova. Not everything (2002)]
The exception is the union whether... whether, parts of which are located in the position of the Wackernagel clitic, i.e. after the first full-stressed word:
(13) First of all, your peace is open, think about it; suddenly someone sees us, a dwarf whether, full-length whether household member (T. Mann, trans. S. Apta)
At the union either... or the first part is located in the position of the Wackernagel clitic, the second - in front of the conjunct:
(14) First of all, your peace is open, think about it; suddenly someone sees us, a dwarf whether, or full-sized household member
List of repeating conjunctions: And ... And ... And; neither ... neither ... neither; whether ... whether... whether; or ... or ... or; That ... That ... That; either... or... or,not that ... not that ... not that; or ... or ... or; be ... be, though ... though; That ... That ... otherwise; That ... That ... or even; or ... or ... either; or ... or ... or; either ... either ... or; either ... or; or ... or ... maybe; Maybe ... Maybe ... maybe; Maybe ... Maybe; Maybe ... maybe.
Repeating conjunctions deserve detailed consideration because they have common semantic and syntactic features that are typologically relevant. To understand these features, it is important to distinguish a repeating conjunction from a formally similar unit - a repeated single conjunction. The main formal difference between them is that a repeating conjunction is repeated before each, including the first, conjunct, while a single conjunction can only be located between conjunctions, thereby not affecting the position before the first conjunct. Wed. examples with repeating and... and and repeat single And, respectively:
(15) Sounded And requirements, And criticism … ["Weekly Magazine" (2003)]
(16) So that inside you there is peace, and outside there is a lively life, cultural values And boutiques, And trams, And pedestrians with shopping, And small cafes with the aroma of sweet cheesecakes. ["Brownie" (2002)]
2. Semantic-syntactic classes of conjunctions
This section discusses two types of conjunctions - coordinating and subordinating, in accordance with the two types of relationships between syntactic units, which the union expresses - composition (coordination) and subordination (subordination).
2.1. Essay vs. subordination
Composition and subordination are two fundamental types of syntactic relations that have varied manifestations in different languages.
For example, in German composed clauses require different word orders:
(17) Er geht nach Hause, denn er ist krank – ‘He’s going home because he’s sick, lit. there is a patient’
(18) Er geht nach Hause, weil er crank ist– ‘He’s going home because he’s sick, literally. the patient is’
Despite the fact that composition and submission - basic concepts grammar, there is no single generally accepted approach to defining them (see Composition, Subordination, Composition and Subordination). Along with the traditional syntactic approach, according to which the elements of a coordinating construction are characterized by the same syntactic function, and the elements of a subordinating construction are characterized by different syntactic functions, [Beloshapkova 1977], there are also semantic and pragmatic-communicative approaches.
Despite all the differences in approaches, the generally accepted idea is that coordinating relationships are characterized by symmetry, and subordinating relationships are characterized by asymmetry. The symmetry of the essay is evident in different levels language: morphological (cf. * smoking and reading while lying down are harmful; *he was handsome and smart), syntactic (usually identical parts of the sentence are composed), lexical-semantic (cf. when and where did this happen vs. *yesterday and at five o'clock).
In the Russian grammatical tradition, the question of distinguishing between composition and subordination and the question of distinguishing between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions are equated to each other. Strictly speaking, however, these are different questions. But the difference is significant, first of all, for those languages where the conjunction is not the main means of polypredicative communication. For the Russian language, where the conjunctive method of forming dependent predication dominates, this difference, somewhat coarseningly, can be neglected. Typical examples of coordinating conjunctions in Russian are: and, but, or, either, typical examples of subordinating conjunctions are since, when, so that, due to which, if, although.
Within the class of subordinating conjunctions, the following distinction is also significant: conjunctions that usually introduce actant (subject or object) clauses, and conjunctions that usually introduce circonstant clauses. In Russian terminology, the first roughly correspond to explanatory conjunctions (what, to, as if etc.), and the second – all other subordinating conjunctions ( because, although, if, when and etc.). In the typological literature, the term is adopted for conjunctions heading an actant clause complementizer, for conjunctions heading a constant clause - the term adverbial subordinator. English term complementizer broader than the Russian term explanatory union: complementizers include, in particular, the interrogative particle whether, heading an actant clause.
It should be borne in mind that conjunctions introducing actant and sirconstant clauses do not necessarily form two non-overlapping groups. So, in Russian the conjunctions so that, as if, as if can act in both functions. Wed:
(19) <…>Kazbich imagined as if Azamat, with the consent of his father, stole his horse from him, at least I think so. [M. Yu. Lermontov. Hero of Our Time (1839-1841)] – the subordinate clause fills the objective valency of the main predicate
(20) The snakes busily studied the situation, as if were wondering where to start... ["Crime Chronicle" (2003)] - the subordinate clause does not fill the valency of the main predicate
The distinction between actant and circonstant clauses - and in the case when both types of clauses can be introduced by the same conjunction, as in (18)–(19), and the distinction between conjunctions - is based on a number of formal grounds (see the article Subordination for more details). For example, the removal of an interrogative pronoun is permissible from an actant clause, but not from a circonstant clause, cf. examples (20) and (21) respectively:
(21) a. Do you want to be paid a million?
b. How many do you want to get paid?
(22) a. Have you come to be paid a million?
b. ??? How many did you come to get paid?
2.2. Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are traditionally divided into three semantic groups:
- connecting conjunctions: and, yes, and also; both... and, not only that... also, not... but, not... but, not to say that... but, not so much... as, not only... but also, not that... but, rather... than;and... and... and; Yes Yes Yes; neither... nor... nor; whether... whether... whether; or... or... or; then... then... then; either... or... or, not that... not that... not that; either... or... or; be... be, at least... at least; then... then... and then; then... then... and even; either... or... or; either... or... or; either... or... or; be it... or; or... or... or maybe; maybe... maybe... maybe; perhaps... perhaps; maybe... or maybe;
- adversative conjunctions: but yes in meaning but, however, and, on the other hand, and that;
- dividing unions: or, or, or else, not that, not that; or... or, either... or; whether... whether, whether... or, at least... at least, what... what, be it... or; and then, and maybe (maybe) and; not... so, if (and) not... then; maybe (be), maybe (be)... maybe (be), maybe (be)... and maybe (be); not that... not that, or... or; then... then.
2.3. Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are divided into the following semantic groups:
(1) causal conjunctions ( since, because, since, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, for, then that);
(2) consequence unions ( so, or else, or else);
(3) target unions ( so that, in order to, in order to, then in order to, in order to);
(4) conditional conjunctions ( if, if, if, once, if, as soon as, if (would), if, if only);
(5) concessionary alliances ( although, at least; for nothing; if only, if only; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; at least, at least, let, let; while, meanwhile, whereas; it would be good, let it be; only truth);
(6) temporary unions ( barely, barely, as soon as, as, when, only, only, as, after, since, until, until, while, until, until, until, before, before than, just, just, just, barely, barely, before, while);
(7) comparative unions ( how, what, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if (as), likewise, exactly, exactly (as), than, rather than).
(8) explanatory conjunctions ( what, in order, as if, how);
3. Illocutionary use of conjunctions
The use of a conjunction is called illocutionary when it expresses the connection between the propositional content of one clause in a complex sentence and the illocutionary modality of another:
(23) Yes, and not yet I forgot, give them a coin. [A. Belyanin. The Fierce Landgrave (1999)]
Bye expresses here the temporary connection between the propositional meaning of the subordinate clause and the illocutionary modality of the request included in the content of the main one. Wed. with non-illocutionary use of the conjunction Bye(see Subordinating conjunctions / clause 7.1. Temporary conjunctions) :
(24) Knead the dough until Bye it Not will become shiny and will not lag behind the fun. [Recipes of national cuisines: Czech Republic (2000-2005)]
Conjunctions are capable of illocutionary use because the, because, once, If, Bye, to, otherwise, otherwise, otherwise, So, for and some others. Wed. examples:
(25) Because the We don’t know each other, let me introduce myself: Vasily Ivanovich Stepanenko. ["Science and Life" (2007)]
(26) A once So, what should we test combines on? [A. Azolsky. Lopushok (1998)]
(27) You, brat, turn around, otherwise you should lie in your grave! [M. Gigolashvili. Ferris Wheel (2007)]
(28) Rejoice, you didn’t ask anything, So Rest! [SMS messages from high school students (2004)]
4. Statistics
Statistics of groups of unions are given for the Main Corpus with homonymy not removed, because the check shows that in the Corpus with the homonymy removed, the homonymy of conjunctions with particles and pronouns is not removed. Thus, the data for the much smaller Corpus with the homonymy removed are not more accurate. In addition, many conjunctions are multi-valued and belong to several classes at once. Any accurate statistics of many conjunctions, especially frequent, polysemantic, double ones, often turns out to be completely impossible. The data below reflects, therefore, a far from complete picture. In general, conjunctions, like other auxiliary parts of speech, quite evenly permeate a variety of speech registers, so that their diachronic analysis, as well as analysis in different linguistic registers, is relatively uninformative, especially in relation to entire classes and subclasses of conjunctions.
More informative is the statistical analysis of some individual conjunctions, namely, those that are unambiguous and not homonymous with other parts of speech. This is usually typical for compound (see), but not double (see) and non-repeating (see) conjunctions, such as similar to. Such an analysis makes it possible to correct the descriptions of some conjunctions existing in dictionaries and grammars as bookish, outdated or rare. Compare, for example, unions so that, single or and some others who returned to modern language as colloquial or frequency in newspaper texts. Statistics of some individual unions are given for the Main and Newspaper Corps.
Some conjunctions are given with homonymy not completely removed, but only in cases where their statistics are still relatively representative. For example, for the union And homonymy with the particle is not removed And. However, since the conjunction lexeme is significantly more frequent, statistics on And, however, is of interest. For some unions, individual filters were developed, which made it possible to partially remove homonymy - for example, for the comparative union how only contexts were taken into account comparative degree.
Table 1. Frequency of the main semantic-syntactic classes of conjunctions
|
Main building |
||
|
coordinating conjunctions (% of all words) |
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|
subordinating conjunctions (% of all words) |
||
|
Total |
||
|
classes of coordinating conjunctions (% of all conjunctions) |
||
|
connecting |
||
|
adversative |
||
|
dividing |
||
|
replacement |
statistics not possible |
|
|
classes of subordinating conjunctions (% of all conjunctions) |
||
|
causal |
||
|
consequences |
||
|
targeted |
||
|
conditional |
||
|
concessionary |
||
|
temporary |
||
|
explanatory |
||
|
comparative unions (% of all unions) |
||
Table 2. Frequency of main conjunctions as a percentage (of the total number of words)
|
Union |
Main body with unsolved homonymy |
Newspaper building |
||
|
essay unions |
connecting |
1. and 3. and...and(with a distance of three words) 4. both...and 5. not as much... as 6. not only but 7. not that...but<но> 8. not that...but 9. no no 10. rather than |
||
|
adversarial |
2.en(in combination with Not And No) 3.but 5.however |
|||
|
separating |
1.or even 2.be it... or 3.if not... then 4.or 5.or or 6.either...or 7.Lily 8.or 9.or either 10.maybe... maybe 11.not that... not that 12.then... then(with a distance of two words) 13.either... or |
|||
|
subordinating conjunctions |
causal conjunctions |
1.thanks to 2.due to the fact that 3.due to 4.due to the fact that 5.due to the fact that 6.then what 7.for 8.because of 9.because the 10.because 11.because |
||
|
investigation unions |
1.otherwise 2.otherwise 3.So |
|||
|
target alliances |
1.so that 2.in order to 3.then to 4.so as to 5.so that 6.to |
|||
|
conditional conjunctions |
1.if 2.If 3.if only 4.if 5.if only 6.if 7.as soon as 8.once |
|||
|
concessionary alliances |
1.while 2.for nothing that 3.it would be nice 4.if only 5.meanwhile 6.no matter what 7.although 8.whereas 9.Although |
|||
|
temporary unions |
1.barely 2.as soon as 3.When 4.just 5.Bye 6.not yet 7.not yet 8.as 9.after 10.before 11.earlier than 12.since |
|||
|
explanatory conjunctions |
1.as if 2.How 3.What 4.to |
|||
|
comparative unions |
1.as if 2.than 3.similar to 4.as if 5.how |
|||
Notes on Tables:
1) homonymy with particles and pronouns has not been removed;
2) the homonymy between single and double/repeating conjunctions has not been removed;
3) homonymy between unions of different groups has not been removed;
4) parts of double and repeating conjunctions are given with a distance of up to 4 words, unless another distance is indicated.
Bibliography
Main literature
For punctuation in compound subordinating conjunctions and the conditions for their division, see also [Rosenthal et al. 1999: section 108]. “The conditions for the dismemberment of a complex conjunction include: 1) the presence of a negation before the conjunction Not; 2) the presence of intensifying, restrictive and other particles in front of the union; 3) the presence of an introductory word before the conjunction, 4) the inclusion of the first part (correlative word) in a series of homogeneous members.
Conjunctions with a similar set of properties are found in the main European languages (cf. English. both... and, either... or, neither... nor, German. sowohl… als auch, entweder… oder and so on.). However, as can be seen from the examples, the very sign of “repetition”, i.e. the coincidence of parts of the union is not typologically significant.
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