1.1. Introductory lecture: “Textile materials science”, classification of textile materials, basic terms and concepts
1.7. Main conclusions
2. Textile processing technology
2.2. Lecture No. 7. Weaving technology
2.3. Lecture No. 8. Knitting technology
2.4. Lecture No. 9. Nonwoven technology
2.6 Lecture No. 10. Textile finishing
2.7. Main conclusions
Bibliography
Appendix 1. Handouts for the lecture course
Appendix 2. Slides for the lecture course
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1. Textile materials science
1.1. Introductory lecture: “Textile materials science”, basic terms and concepts
Textile materials science is a science that studies the structure, properties and quality assessment of textile materials.
Textile materials include those that consist of textile fibers and threads, and the fibers and threads themselves.
| ^ Textile materials |
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| Textile fibers | Textile threads |
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| Yarn | Monofilament | ^
Elementary filaments
| Stripes |
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| ^
Complex thread
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| Textiles (fabrics, knitwear, non-woven fabrics) |
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Fig.1 General classification of textile materials
^ Textile fibers are called extended bodies, flexible and durable, with small transverse dimensions, limited length, suitable for the manufacture of textiles. 1
Textile fibers are divided into two classes: natural and chemical. Based on the origin of the fiber-forming substance, natural fibers are divided into three subclasses: plant, animal and mineral origin, chemical fibers are divided into two subclasses: artificial and synthetic.
Fibers are the starting material for the manufacture of textile products and can be used both in natural and mixed forms. The properties of fibers affect the technological process of processing them into yarn. Therefore, it is important to know the basic properties of fibers and their characteristics: thickness, length, crimp. The thickness of the products obtained from them depends on the thickness of the fibers and yarn, which affects their consumer properties.
^ Textile thread is a flexible, durable body with small transverse dimensions of considerable length, which is used for the manufacture of textiles 2.
Yarn consists of longitudinal and sequentially located more or less straightened fibers and connected into a continuous thread by twisting 3.
There are two gradations of textile threads and yarn. This primary threads, those obtained directly from textile machines, and secondary threads, which are obtained as a result of further processing of primary threads in order to change their appearance and properties.
Monofilament- This is a single thread that does not divide in the longitudinal direction without destruction, and can be used for the manufacture of textiles 4.
^ Complex thread – consists of several longitudinally located elementary threads connected to each other by twisting, gluing, and entangling 5.
Stripes– these are products formed as a result of dividing paper, foil, film into elementary strips and then twisting them 6.
Fabrics- products obtained by interweaving two mutually perpendicular systems of parallel threads - longitudinal, called warp, and transverse, called weft 7.
Knitwear- products obtained from one thread, or many threads of one system by forming loops and interweaving them 8.
^ Non-woven fabrics - products obtained by fastening in various ways layers of fibers - canvases or parallel threads, etc. 9.
In the following lectures we will get acquainted in more detail with the types of textile materials, their structure and methods of their production and processing.
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1.2. Lecture No. 2. Characteristics of textile materials
Textile fibers
Textile fibers (threads) are diverse in their origin, production method and chemical composition.
Almost all fibers consist of polymers - chain molecules.
Polymers(from the Greek polymeres, “poly” - many, “meros” - part) - chemical compounds whose macromolecules consist of a large number of repeating groups (monomer units). The links are connected to each other very firmly by strong chemical forces, so polymers have exceptional strength. But at the same time, polymer molecules are very flexible. Combination of high strength with flexibility - characteristic property polymer materials.
Based on their origin, polymers are divided into: natural (biopolymers) and synthetic. Natural polymers are the basis of all natural and artificial fibers.
Natural fibers exist in nature in finished form, they are formed from natural polymers that form in plants or on skin animals. Thus, cotton and flax fibers consist of a cellulose polymer, wool fibers are made of a keratin protein polymer, and natural silk threads are made of fibroin protein polymers.
Man-made fibers are produced in a factory after extraction and chemical processing of natural polymers. For example: viscose, acetate, triacetate fibers are obtained from cellulose; casein and zein fibers are obtained from proteins.
To obtain synthetic fibers, new high-molecular compounds (polymers) that do not exist in nature in finished form are synthesized from low-molecular substances (relatively simple molecules).
Man-made and synthetic fibers are classified as chemical fibers because chemical fibers are fibers produced by industrial processes.
Used for the manufacture of textiles different kinds fibers that differ from each other in chemical composition, structure and properties
Figure 2 shows the modern classification of textile fibers in a simplified form.
^ Rice. 2 Classification of textile fibers
Natural fibers
Natural fibers- these are fibers that exist in nature in finished form; they are formed without direct human participation.
Natural fibers can be of plant, animal, or mineral origin.
^ Natural fibers of plant origin
The main substance that makes up plant fibers is cellulose. This solid, poorly soluble substance consists of C6H10O5 units. In addition to cellulose, plant fibers contain waxes, fats, proteins, dyes, etc.
Plant fibers can be located:
There is cotton on the surface of the seeds
On the walls of the fruit there is kapok
In the fruit shell there is coir
Inside the stem - flax, hemp, jute, kenaf
Leaves: abaca, sisal
The most common plant fibers are cotton and linen.
^ Natural fibers of animal origin
Natural fibers of animal origin: wool, natural silk
Wool- mammalian hair with spinning properties. Wool fibers are made up of natural protein molecules called keratin.
Silk- a product of the secretion of special silk-secreting glands of some insects (mulberry silkworm, oak silkworm). Natural silk threads consist of polymers of the natural proteins fibroin and sericin.
^ Natural fiber of mineral origin : asbestos.
In terms of its chemical composition, asbestos is aqueous silicates of magnesium, iron, and calcium and occurs in rocks in the form of veins and streaks.
Figure 3 schematically shows the classification of natural fibers.
^ Rice. 3 Classification of natural fibers.
Chemical fibers
Chemical fibers- fibers (threads) obtained by industrial methods in a factory.
Chemical fibers, depending on the feedstock, are divided into three main groups:
man-made fibers are obtained from natural organic polymers (for example, cellulose, casein, proteins) by extracting polymers from natural substances and chemical exposure on them
synthetic fibers are produced from synthetic organic polymers obtained by synthesis reactions 10 (polymerization 11 and polycondensation 12) from low molecular weight compounds (monomers), the raw materials for which are petroleum and coal processing products
mineral fibers are fibers obtained from inorganic compounds.
^ Organic fibers are formed from polymers containing carbon atoms directly connected to each other, or including atoms of other elements along with carbon.
^ Inorganic fibers are formed from inorganic compounds (compounds from chemical elements except carbon compounds).
Figure 4 schematically shows the classification of chemical fibers.
^ Fig.4 Classification of chemical fibers.
Synthetic fibers
Synthetic fibers (threads)- formed from polymers that do not exist in nature, but are obtained by synthesis from natural low-molecular compounds.
Figure 5 schematically shows the classification of synthetic fibers.
^ Fig. 5. classification of synthetic fibers
Products from the processing of gas, oil and coal (benzene, phenol, ethylene, acetylene...) are used as feedstock for the production of synthetic fibers. The type of polymer obtained depends on the type of starting materials. The name of the polymer is given by the name of the starting substances. Synthetic polymers are obtained by synthesis reactions (polymerization or polycondensation) from low molecular weight compounds (monomers). Synthetic fibers are formed either from a melt or a polymer solution using a dry or wet method.
^ Man-made fibers
Artificial fibers (threads)- these are chemical fibers (threads) obtained by chemical transformation of natural organic polymers (for example, cellulose, casein, proteins or seaweed).
Figure 6 schematically shows the classification of artificial fibers.
^ Rice. 6 Classification of artificial fibers.
Many people confuse artificial and synthetic fibers. Synthetic fibers have a chemical composition that cannot be found among natural materials. Another thing is artificial fibers. Artificial fibers are obtained from polymers found in nature in finished form (cellulose, proteins). For example, viscose is the same cellulose found in cotton. Only viscose is spun from wood fibers.
Yarn
Depending on the purpose of the yarn, different requirements are imposed on its appearance and properties. To produce some materials, you need yarn that is very thin, smooth, and uniform in thickness, while for others, on the contrary, it is thicker, fluffy, and loose. Such varied requirements can only be met by yarn types with different structures. The structure of the yarn is determined by the type of fibrous raw material, the shape and size of the fibers, their location in the threads, the amount in the cross section, the uniformity of distribution along the length of the thread and twist. Depending on the fibrous composition, yarn is divided into: 1) homogeneous, consisting of fibers of the same name - cotton, wool, flax, etc.; 2) mixed - from fibers of different origins, combined in spinning processes - wool with cotton, wool with viscose and lavsan, etc.; 3) heterogeneous from stitched or twisted threads of different fibrous composition - wool with cotton, wool with viscose, etc.
Fabrics
Fabric is one of the types of textile products, the main of which are: fabric, wicker, tulle, knitted. These products differ from each other in the type of yarn (threads) from which they are made, structure, manufacturing method, appearance, purpose, etc.
^ Fabric classification
Fabrics are distinguished by the type of raw material from which they are made, by color, by texture, by touch, by finishing.
By type of raw material
natural (classic). They are:
plant origin (cotton, flax, hemp, jute);
animal origin (wool, natural silk);
mineral origin (awn, spinous tissue, asbestos);
artificial:
from natural substances of organic (cellulose, proteins) and inorganic (glass, metals) origin: viscose, acetate; metal threads, lurex;
from synthetic polymers, including:
polyamide fabrics (Dederon, Chemlon, Silon),
polyesters (diolen, slotra, tesil),
polypropylene fabrics,
polyvinyl fabrics (cashmilon, dralon).
for plain-dyed plain colors (hard linen, white fabric, colored fabric);
for multi-colored fabrics (melange fabrics, mulled, printed, variegated fabrics).
thin, pleasant to the touch,
thick,
rare,
soft,
rude,
heavy.
cloth (pressed, smooth, brushed),
bike (rolled, brushed),
non-woven materials - felt, felt, such as flannel, flannel, etc.
(rolled double-sided),
velor (rolled, with aligned pile).
Exclusive
Elegant
Dresses
Blouses
Costume
Coats
Jackets
Lining
Companions
Upholstery (furniture)
Curtains
Technical
Other
with a simple (smooth or main) weave - plain, twill, satin (satin),
with special weave - crepe, fine-grain fabrics (canvas),
with composite (combined) weave (fabrics in checks, squares, stripes),
jacquard type - with large-patterned weave (simple and complex),
with a two-layer weave - two independent fabrics are formed, located one above the other and connected to each other by one of the thread systems that form these fabrics, or by a special warp or weft thread (wear-resistant and heat-protective thin-woven fabrics such as drapes and some silk fabrics),
with pile weave - with weft weave (semi-velvet, corduroy), with warp weave (velvet, plush),
with a processed edge - edge.
When determining the texture of a fabric, it is necessary to distinguish between the right side and the wrong side. The right side looks much more elegant in appearance and is more pleasant to the touch; the colors on the right side are brighter and richer, the pattern appears clearly. For fabrics in which both sides are the same (with a two-face weave of threads - lightweight drapes, linen, Panama), it is difficult to distinguish the right side from the wrong side. On double-sided wool fabrics, the pile on the right side is much shorter.
By yarn
According to the spinning system, yarn can be combed, carded, or machined.
Combed yarn is made from long-staple cotton, from long wool of various types. Combed yarn is smooth, even and durable. The combed spinning system produces smooth, even, strong, elastic, shiny yarn. Fabrics made from this yarn are very pleasant to the touch, soft, elastic, and do not wrinkle, especially those made from finely combed wool yarn (gabardine, carpet coat, etc.). Of the coarser woolen fabrics of this yarn (roughly combed), cheviot is known. This type of fabric is elastic and feels harsh to the touch; The surface of the finished fabric has a characteristic shine. The comb spinning system also produces mohair fabrics, which are much softer and smoother than cheviot.
Carded yarn is obtained from raw materials (cotton, wool, etc.) of medium length, which is processed in various ways, excluding combing. The fabric made from this yarn is strong, elastic, but not of the same evenness, and is slightly fluffy.
The machine spinning system produces yarn that is soft, fluffy, of reduced strength, and lacks uniformity. Hardware yarn is used to make fine and coarse cloth fabrics for winter use (flannel, flannel, beaver, overcoat cloth, etc.). Fabrics made from this yarn are pressed and rolled.
Knitwear differs in structure from fabric in that it consists of loops intertwined in the transverse and longitudinal directions. The type of knitwear weave is determined by the shape, size, location of the loops and connections between them. The thread forming the loop is in forceful interaction with neighboring loops, due to which the certain dimensions and shape of the loops are maintained. The main parameters of the loop, which largely determine physical and mechanical properties knitwear are the length of the thread in the loop, the number and the fibrous composition of the thread.
^ Non-woven fabrics
Nonwovens are materials formed from fibrous mass, yarn or fabrics, most often held together by knitting with threads, felting and gluing. The production of nonwoven materials has significant technical and economic advantages compared to the production of knitwear and fabrics. For the production of nonwoven materials, standard as well as short fibers that are not suitable for spinning, both natural and artificial, and synthetic, can be used in a wide variety of combinations dictated by the requirements for the material. Technological process The production of nonwovens takes less time due to the complete absence of weaving processes and the partial or complete elimination of spinning processes.
Nonwoven materials make it possible to expand the range of products produced by the clothing industry.
Nonwoven materials, depending on the bonding methods, are divided into three classes: 1) bonded mechanically; 2) bonded by physical and chemical means; 3) fastened in a combined way. Figure 7 shows the classification of nonwoven materials used for making clothing.
^ Rice. 7. Classification of mechanically bonded nonwoven materials
The classification of nonwoven materials formed by bonding fibrous webs using physicochemical and combined methods is shown in Fig. 8.
Rice. 8. Classification of nonwoven materials bonded by physical-chemical and combined methods.
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1.3. Lecture No. 3. Structure and properties of textile materials
Natural fibers
Cotton- These are the fibers that cover the seeds of cotton plants. Cotton is an annual plant 0.6-1.7 m high, growing in areas with a hot climate. The main substance (94-96%) that cotton fiber consists of is cellulose. Under a microscope, cotton fiber of normal maturity looks like a flat ribbon with a corkscrew crimp and a channel filled with air inside (Fig. 9). One end of the fiber on the side where it is separated from the cotton seed is open, the other, which has a conical shape, is closed.
^ Fig.9 Cotton fibers of various degrees of maturity under a microscope
Cotton fiber is inherently crimped. Fibers of normal maturity have the greatest crimp - 40-120 crimps per 1 cm.
The length of cotton fibers ranges from 1 to 55 mm. Depending on the length of the fibers, cotton is divided into short-staple (20-27 mm), medium-staple (28-34 mm) and long-staple (35-50 mm). Cotton with a length of less than 20 mm is called unspun, i.e., it is impossible to make yarn from it. There is a certain relationship between the length and thickness of cotton fibers: the longer the fibers, the thinner they are.
The choice of spinning system (yarn production) depends on the length and thickness of the fibers, which in turn affects the quality of the yarn and fabric. Thus, from long-staple (fine-fiber) cotton, thin, even in thickness, with low hairiness, dense, strong yarn of 5.0 tex and above is obtained, used for the manufacture of high-quality thin and light fabrics: cambric, voile, volte, combed satin, etc.
Medium-fiber cotton is used to produce yarn of medium and higher average linear density 11.8-84.0 tex, from which the bulk of cotton fabrics are produced: calico, calico, calico, carded satin, corduroy, etc.
From short-fiber cotton, loose, thick, uneven in thickness, fluffy, sometimes with foreign impurities, yarn is obtained - 55-400 tex, used for the production of flannel, paper, flannel, etc.
Cotton fiber has numerous positive properties. It has high hygroscopicity (8-12%), so cotton fabrics have good hygienic properties.
The fibers are quite strong. Distinctive feature cotton fiber has an increased tensile strength in the wet state by 15-17%, which is explained by the increase in area cross section fiber twice as a result of its strong swelling in water.
Cotton has high heat resistance - fiber destruction does not occur up to 140°C.
Cotton fiber is more resistant to light than viscose and natural silk, but in terms of light resistance it is inferior to bast and wool fibers. Cotton is highly resistant to alkalis, which is used in finishing cotton fabrics (finishing - mercerization, treatment with caustic soda solution). At the same time, the fibers swell greatly, shrink, become uncrimped, smooth, their walls thicken, the channel narrows, strength increases, and shine increases; the fibers are better dyed, holding the dye firmly. Due to its low elasticity, cotton fiber has high creasing, high shrinkage, and low resistance to acid. Cotton is used for the production of fabrics for various purposes, knitwear, non-woven fabrics, curtains, tulle and lace products, sewing threads, braid, laces, ribbons, etc. Cotton fluff is used in the production of medical, clothing, and furniture wool.
^ Bast fibers obtained from the stems, leaves or fruit shells of various plants. Stem bast fibers are flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, etc., leaf fibers are sisal, etc., fruit fibers are coir, obtained from the covering of coconut shells. Of the bast fibers, flax fibers are the most valuable.
Linen- an annual herbaceous plant, has two varieties: long flax and curly flax. Fibers are obtained from fiber flax. The main substance that makes up bast fibers is cellulose (about 75%). Associated substances include: lignin, pectin, fatty wax, nitrogenous, coloring, ash substances, water. Flax fiber has four to six edges with pointed ends and characteristic strokes (shifts) in individual areas, resulting from mechanical effects on the fiber during its production (Fig. 10).
^ Rice. 10. Flax fibers under a microscope: 1 - longitudinal view; 2 - cross section shape
Unlike cotton, flax fiber has relatively thick walls, a narrow channel, closed at both ends; The surface of the fiber is more even and smooth, so linen fabrics are less likely to get dirty than cotton fabrics and are easier to wash. These properties of flax are especially valuable for linen fabrics. Flax fiber is also unique in that, with high hygroscopicity (12%), it absorbs and releases moisture faster than other textile fibers; it is stronger than cotton, elongation at break is 2-3%. The content of lignin in flax fiber makes it resistant to light, weather, and microorganisms. Thermal destruction of the fiber does not occur up to + 160°C. Chemical properties flax fiber is similar to cotton, i.e. it is resistant to alkalis, but not resistant to acids. Due to the fact that linen fabrics have their natural, quite beautiful silky shine, they are not subjected to mercerization.
However, flax fiber is highly wrinkled due to low elasticity and is difficult to bleach and dye.
Due to its high hygienic and strength properties, flax fibers are used to produce linen fabrics (for underwear, table linen, bed linen), and summer suit and dress fabrics. At the same time, about half of linen fabrics are produced in a mixture with other fibers, a significant part of which is semi-linen underwear fabrics with cotton yarn at the base.
Canvas, fire hoses, cords, shoe threads are also made from flax fibers, and coarser fabrics are made from flax tows: bags, canvas, tarpaulins, sailcloths, etc.
Hemp is obtained from the annual hemp plant. The fibers are used to produce ropes, ropes, twines, packaging and bagging fabrics.
Kenaf, jute is obtained from annual plants families of mallow and linden. Kenaf and jute are used to produce bag and container fabrics; used for transporting and storing moisture-intensive goods.
Wool- fiber from the removed hair of sheep, goats, camels, rabbits and other animals. Wool removed by shearing in the form of a single hairline is called fleece. Wool fibers are composed of the protein keratin, which, like other proteins, contains amino acids.
Under a microscope, wool fibers can be easily distinguished from other fibers - their outer surface is covered with scales. The scaly layer consists of small plates in the form of cone-shaped rings, strung on top of each other, and represents keratinized cells. The scaly layer is followed by the cortical layer - the main one, on which the properties of the fiber and products made from them depend. The fiber may also have a third layer, the core layer, consisting of loose, air-filled cells. Under a microscope, the peculiar crimp of the wool fibers is also visible.
^ Fig. 11 Structure of wool fiber: 1 - Scaly (cuticle), 2 - Cortical, 3 - Core
Depending on what layers are present in the wool, it can be of the following types: fluff, transitional hair, awn, dead hair (Fig. 12).
^ Rice. 12. Wool fibers under a microscope:
1 - longitudinal view; 2- cross-section shape of fibers; a - fine wool, b - semi-fine and semi-coarse wool, c - awn, d - dead hair
Down is a thin, highly crimped, silky fiber without a core layer. Transitional hair has an intermittent, loose core layer, due to which it is uneven in thickness, strength, and has less crimp.
The awn and dead hair have a large core layer and are characterized by great thickness, lack of crimp, increased rigidity and fragility, and low strength.
Depending on the thickness of the fibers and the uniformity of the composition, wool is divided into fine, semi-fine, semi-coarse and coarse. Important indicators of the quality of wool fiber are its length and thickness. The length of wool affects the technology for obtaining yarn, its quality and the quality of finished products. From long fibers (55-120 mm) combed (worsted) yarn is obtained - thin, even in thickness, dense, smooth.
From short fibers (up to 55 mm), hardware (cloth) yarn is obtained, which, unlike worsted, is thicker, loose, fluffy, with uneven thickness.
The properties of wool are unique in their own way - it is characterized by high feltability, which is explained by the presence of a scaly layer on the surface of the fiber.
Thanks to this property, felt, cloth fabrics, felt, blankets, and felted shoes are made from wool. Wool has high heat-protective properties and is highly elastic. Alkalies have a destructive effect on wool; it is resistant to acids. Therefore, if wool fibers containing plant impurities are treated with an acid solution, then these impurities dissolve, and the wool fibers remain in pure form. This process of cleaning wool is called carbonization.
The hygroscopicity of wool is high (15-17%), but unlike other fibers it slowly absorbs and releases moisture, remaining dry to the touch. In water it swells greatly, and the cross-sectional area increases by 30-35%. Moistened fiber in a stretched state can be fixed by drying; when re-moistened, the length of the fiber is restored again. This property of wool is taken into account during the wet-heat treatment of garments made from woolen fabrics for stretching and stretching their individual parts.
Wool is a fairly strong fiber with high elongation at break; when wet, fibers lose 30% strength. The disadvantage of wool is its low heat resistance - at a temperature of 100-110°C, the fibers become brittle, stiff, and their strength decreases.
From fine and semi-fine wool, both in pure form and mixed with other fibers (cotton, viscose, nylon, lavsan, nitron), worsted and fine cloth dress, suit, coat fabrics, non-woven fabrics, knitwear, scarves, blankets are produced. ; from semi-rough and coarse - coarse cloth coat fabrics, felted shoes, felt.
Due to its properties and cost, natural silk is the most valuable textile raw material. It is obtained by unwinding cocoons formed by silkworm caterpillars. The most widespread and valuable is the silk of the silkworm, which accounts for 90% of world silk production (Fig. 13).
^ Rice. 13. Natural silk under a microscope: 1 - longitudinal view; 2 - cross section shape
Of all natural fibers, natural silk is the lightest fiber and, along with its beautiful appearance, has high hygroscopicity (11%), softness, silkiness, and low creasing.
Natural silk has high strength. The breaking load of silk when wet is reduced by approximately 15%. Natural silk is resistant to acids, but not to alkalis, has low light fastness, relatively low heat resistance (100-110°C) and high shrinkage. Silk is used to make dress and blouse fabrics, as well as sewing threads, ribbons, and laces.
^ Asbestos fiber is a mineral natural fiber.
Asbestos (mountain flax) is a fine-fibered white or greenish-yellow mineral with a silky sheen, forming veins that have a cross-fiber structure with fiber lengths from fractions of a millimeter to 5–6 cm (occasionally up to 16 cm) with a thickness of less than 0.0001 mm. According to their chemical composition, asbestos minerals are hydrous silicates of magnesium, iron, calcium and sodium.
A remarkable property of this mineral is its ability to fluff into a fine-fiber mass, similar to linen or cotton, suitable for making fireproof fabrics.
Asbestos has unique properties: high heat resistance (melting point 1550°C), resistance to alkalis, acids and other aggressive liquids, elasticity and outstanding spinning properties. It has high sorption, heat, sound and electrical insulating properties. Its tensile strength along the grain is higher than that of steel.
Combustion features: does not burn
There is simply no other material with a similar set of properties in nature.
Asbestos is used to make fireproof textiles, thermal insulation products, various fillers for plastics, and asbestos cement. Asbestos fibers are usually spun in a mixture with cotton or chemical fibers.
Asbestos fabric is used for sewing heat-insulating clothing and is one of the primary means of extinguishing small fires when substances ignite, combustion of which cannot occur without access to air.
Temperature working environment up to 500°C.
Asbestos fabric (non-woven asbestos fabric), used as thermal insulation material for insulating hot surfaces. Temperature up to +400°C.
^ Chemical fibers
The properties of synthetic fiber and the material obtained from it can be set in advance. The physicomechanical and physicochemical properties of synthetic fibers can be changed in the processes of spinning, drawing, finishing and heat treatment, as well as by modifying both the feedstock (polymer) and the fiber itself. This makes it possible to create chemical fibers with different properties even from one initial fiber-forming polymer.
Yarn
The fiber composition has a significant influence on the structure of the yarn. Long, coarse, straight fibers (flax, coarse combed wool) are arranged compactly in the yarn, the thread is dense, rigid, its surface is in most cases smooth, only sometimes smooth surface The separated ends of straight fibers protrude from the threads. Thin, highly crimped fibers, difficult to straighten during spinning, form a soft, looser thread with a fluffy surface.
Spinning production processes significantly affect the structure of the thread and the arrangement of fibers in it.
^ Rice. 14. Yarn structure diagram: a - combed and carded spinning; b - hardware spinning.
Fabrics
The fabric is a spatial mesh of rectangular or square cells formed by two mutually perpendicular systems of threads - warp threads located along the fabric and weft threads lying across the fabric. Various patterns are created by different sequences of weaving warp and weft threads in fabrics - warp and weft threads go around one another or overlap several threads at once, located either on the front or on the wrong side of the fabric. Weaving not only gives fabrics a different appearance, but also changes their properties. So, the more often the threads are intertwined, moving from the front side to the back side and back, the more they are connected to each other, the more stressed, the structure of the fabric is stiffer, and the strength is greater. Threads with frequent bends give the surface of the fabric a matte appearance, while long overlaps passing over several threads make it smooth and shiny. Fabrics whose surface is formed by long overlaps are more resistant to abrasion, but threads that are weaker in the overall structure of the fabric fray more easily along its cut.
The graphic representation of the weave of fabric threads is called a weave pattern. The sketch is carried out on checkered paper, on which each vertical row of cells corresponds to the warp thread, and the horizontal row corresponds to the weft thread. Each cell represents the intersection of the warp thread and the weft thread. If at this intersection there is a base on top, i.e. the main overlap, the cell is painted over; with a weft overlap, the cell is left unpainted (Fig. 15).
^ Rice. 15. Weaving and its sketch on canvas paper
Simple (main) weaves
A distinctive feature of all simple weaves is the following: 1) warp repeat is always equal to weft repeat; 2) each warp thread is intertwined with each weft thread in the repeat only once.
Fig. 16 Simple weaves
The smaller the repeat of the twill weave, the more frequent the connections, the greater the unity of the fabric and the more rigid its structure. When producing dense fabrics, twill weaves with large repeats are usually used, forming a larger hem. As the repeat of the twill weave increases, the strength of the fabric decreases.
Satin weave gives the fabric a smooth, shiny surface thanks to the rare bends of the warp and weft threads. The face of the satin weave consists of a layer of warp threads. Each warp thread passes under the weft thread only once in the repeat. In satin (weft satin), on the contrary, the front side of the fabric is formed from weft threads, which pass under the main thread only once in repeat on the wrong side of the fabric.
Satin weave is used to produce a large group of cotton fabrics called sateen. Atlas is widely used in the silk industry. In this case, the fabric is usually woven face down on the loom. For combed wool fabrics, the surface of which should be matte, satin weave is used very rarely; Sometimes woolen cloth fabrics are produced with satin weave and subjected to heavy felling and napping.
Knitwear
According to the method of formation, knitwear is divided into cross-knitted and warp-knitted. Cross-knitted knitwear is a knitwear in which each thread sequentially forms all the loops of the loop row (see Fig. 17). Therefore, only one thread is required to form a row of cross-knitted fabric. Warp knitwear is called such a knitwear in which each thread forms only one loop in each loop row (Fig. 18), then goes to the next loop row, forms the next loop, etc. As a result, to form one row of warp knitwear, as many threads are required as how many loops does it have?
 Rice. 17. Scheme of cross-knitted jersey |  Rice. 18. Scheme of warp knitwear. |
The shape of the loops that form the knitwear can be open, in which the broaches connecting adjacent loops do not intersect with each other, or closed, in which the broaches intersect each other (Fig. 19).
Rice. 19. Types of loops: a - open cross-knitted; b - open warp knit; c - closed warp knitted
^ Non-woven fabrics
To produce the bulk of nonwoven materials, fibrous webs consisting of carded carded webs are used. The number of these carding fleeces depends on the purpose of the nonwoven material. The properties of nonwoven materials consisting of fibrous webs are determined by the order in which the fibers are arranged in the webs. The fibers in canvases can be arranged in one direction, crossed due to the zigzag arrangement of individual fleeces along the length of the canvas, or have a combined arrangement, that is, when fleeces with a chaotic arrangement alternate with fleeces with a parallel or cross arrangement of fibers.
In knitted nonwovens, the fibers in the fibrous layers are usually arranged in the transverse direction to create great strength and stability across the width of these materials. The strength and stability of the knitted-stitched nonwoven material along its length is ensured by stitching. To produce knitting-stitching nonwoven materials from two layers of parallel threads located relative to each other at a certain angle, yarn of mainly medium and large thickness is used.
^ Rice. 20. Structure of knitting and stitching non-woven material arachne, held together by a tights weave.
When knitting with a chain, the fibrous canvas is fastened with stitches that are not interconnected across the width of the material. When knitting a leotard with a weave, the fibrous canvas or layers of threads (Fig. 21) end up inside a rare warp knitted fabric.
^ Fig.21. The structure of knitting-stitching nonwoven material Malimo from layers of threads connected by weaving tights .
On the front side of such a non-woven material, loops drawn into the material are visible, and on the back side there are zigzag sections of straight threads - broaches. When knitting a fibrous canvas with a tricot weave, cloth, and especially tricot-chain and cloth-chain, the fibers or threads in the non-woven material are most firmly fixed.
When knitting rare fabrics with weaves that form free-hanging loops on one side (Fig. 22), non-woven materials are produced that resemble terry fabrics or plush knitwear. For knitting knitting-stitching nonwoven materials, both single and twisted yarns, complex and filament threads of medium thickness are used.
^ Fig.22. Structure of nonwoven material Malipole.
Needle-punched non-woven materials are formed from a fibrous canvas with threads laid inside. Some of the fibers in this material are located perpendicular to its surface (Fig. 23), due to which the fibrous web is bound into one whole and gives the non-woven material high tear strength, porosity and softness.
^ Fig.23. Structure of Needle Punched Nonwoven Fabric .
Glued non-woven materials used in the manufacture of clothing are produced mainly by gluing: dry, wet and combined. Glued materials obtained by dry gluing are a fibrous canvas containing a mixture of natural, artificial and thermoplastic staple synthetic fibers, or a fibrous canvas and frame consisting of a system of filament synthetic threads, or a fibrous canvas and mesh made of polyvinyl chloride and other thermoplastic materials.
For the manufacture of clothing, glued materials are mainly used, obtained by wet gluing and representing a fibrous layer or system of threads made of natural and artificial fibers, impregnated with solutions, emulsions, dispersions, latexes of water-soluble or organic binders that glue the fibers without changing their chemical composition. The fibrous layer or filaments are then heat treated.
A distinctive feature of the structure of nonwoven materials obtained by gluing is the presence of zones of bonding fibers or threads together with a binder. So, as a result of gluing with solutions, after drying, an adhesive substance in the form of droplets remains on the fibers. The disadvantage of this bonding method is the uneven distribution of the adhesive material and its deposition only on the periphery of the fibrous material, which leads to delamination of the material. The fibers in such nonwoven materials have low mobility, and the materials are rigid. When fibrous webs are impregnated with binder dispersions and subsequent precipitation of the dispersions with coagulants, the binder is located in the fibrous base more evenly in the form of separate agglomerates deposited both on the fiber and in the interfiber space.
A so-called segment structure is formed. A film of adhesive material is deposited on the fibers and between the fibers at their intersection points. In this case, depending on the type of fibers, the fastening agent is distributed either in the plane of the fiber, or even perpendicular to the thickness of the material, leaving large areas between the fibers free of glue, allowing air and moisture to pass through. Materials obtained by this method have increased softness, flexibility and elasticity. The geometric parameters of the structure of nonwoven materials include the knitting density of knitting and stitching nonwoven materials, volumetric weight and porosity.
^ Properties of fabrics, knitwear and non-woven materials for clothing
The property of a material is understood as its distinctive feature - thickness, weight, strength, etc. What expresses the property is called characteristic. Each property can be expressed by various characteristics. Thus, the strength of a material is characterized by breaking load, breaking stress or breaking length. The digital expression of a characteristic is called an indicator.
All the variety of properties of materials for clothing are divided into the following main groups:
1) geometric properties - thickness, width, length and weight;
2) mechanical properties - tensile strength, tensile deformation and its components, bending deformation (flexural rigidity, drapability), tangential resistance (thread displacement, fabric fraying, knitwear unraveling), etc.;
3) physical properties - heat-protective and sorption properties, air and water permeability, optical properties;
4) shrinkage during wetting and washing, moldability during wet-heat treatment;
5) wear resistance - the ability of a material to withstand abrasion, repeated stretching, physical and chemical factors, etc.
^
1.4. Lecture No.4. Area of use of textile materials
Textile materials serve to satisfy human needs, in particular in clothing. However, in addition to clothing, they are also necessary to satisfy many other needs; Among them, household and household items should be mentioned, such as bed linen and blankets, towels, tablecloths, napkins, finishing materials, curtains and carpets and many other things. Textile materials are widely used in technology; they are used in almost all branches of industry.
Also, we should not forget about ropes and woven drive belts, conveyor belts and cord - a rare fabric made from twisted threads that forms the basis of automobile, aircraft and other tires, various containers and other packaging materials, sails, fishing tackle, etc. -various thermal, electrical and other types of insulation, sieves and filters, etc. Parachutes, astronaut suits and much more necessary for aviation and space exploration are also made from textile materials. Medicine uses them as dressings and prosthetic materials. They are also used in the decoration of theaters, clubs, and schools, and in bookbinding.
The applications of textile materials are subject to change. Use in some is declining, but new, previously unknown uses are emerging. Thus, with the development of the production of film materials, they often replace fabrics for certain types of outerwear; non-woven fabrics are widely used as the basis of artificial leather, filters, road covering materials, etc.; knitted prostheses of blood vessels, light guides made of glass threads, etc. even appeared. Plastics reinforced with various types of fibers, including glass and carbon, became widespread. New fibers have appeared, obtained by crushing films.
In the manufacture of clothing, cotton and various chemical fibers, wool and, in small quantities, flax and silk are widely used; for wearable underwear - mainly cotton and various chemical fibers; for technical products - all types of fibers.
^
1.5 Lecture No. 5. Production and primary processing of textile materials
Natural fibers
Cotton. Raw cotton (seeds covered with fibers) collected from the fields is sent to cotton gin plants for primary processing. In addition to fibers, cotton mass contains various impurities, the presence of which reduces the quality of cotton. Their quantity depends mainly on the method of collecting raw cotton, its primary processing, as well as on the variety of cotton and its growing conditions.
In the process of primary processing at cotton gin plants, with the help of so-called grain separating machines, cotton fiber (fibers generally more than 20 mm long), fluff or lint (fibers less than 20 mm long), and down or delint (short fibrous cover less than 20 mm long) are sequentially separated from the seeds. 5 mm). Cotton fiber accounts for about 1/3 of the total mass of raw cotton. At the same time, foreign impurities (particles of leaves, bolls, stems) are removed.
The fibers are then pressed into bales and sent for further processing to cotton spinning factories.
Linen. Harvesting fiber flax.
Flax is harvested during the period of early yellow ripeness. Flax is tugged, that is, pulled out of the ground along with its roots, then dried, freed from seed heads (combed), and threshed. After threshing, the stems are subjected to primary processing.
^ Primary processing of flax
The purpose of primary processing of flax is to obtain trust from flax stems, and from trust - fiber.
To release the fibers, the stems are subjected to biological (cutting) and mechanical (crushing, fraying) processes.
Lobe can be produced in various ways:
Dewy lobe, or spread. After threshing, the stems (straw) are spread on the field in even rows. In straws spread on the grass and wet from drops of dew and rain, microorganisms rapidly develop, destroying the adhesive substances inside the stem.
The process of trust formation sometimes lasts three, and sometimes six weeks, depending on the weather, and in order for it to proceed evenly over the entire layer, the spread straw has to be turned over 2-3 times during this time.
Cold water lobe. Straw in sheaves, bales, containers, etc. immerse in water for 10-15 days.
Heat soaking is used in flax mills. The straw is soaked in water heated to 36 - 37 °C. This allows you to obtain trust in 70 - 80 hours, and when using accelerators (urea, ammonia water, etc.) - in 24 - 48 hours. Steaming the straw in autoclaves under a pressure of 2-3 atm (up to 75-90 minutes) further shortens the process ) and soaking in a weak solution of soda ash, acids and special emulsions (up to 30 minutes).
^ Processing fires at a flax mill
At the flax mill, to separate the fiber from the flax, the trust is subjected to mechanical stress, carrying out the following operations:
crushing: the trust is passed through grooved rollers, thereby destroying the fragile wood, but preserving the elastic fiber;
beating: hitting the trust repeatedly with the blades of beating drums;
shaking: the crumbling fire is removed using a shaking machine.
Silk. The production of silk goes through the following stages: the silkworm butterfly lays eggs (grena), from which caterpillars hatch about 3 mm long. They feed on leaves mulberry tree, hence the name silkworm. After a month, the caterpillar, having accumulated natural silk, wraps itself in a continuous thread of 40-45 layers through the silk-secreting glands located on both sides of the body and forms a cocoon. Cocoon winding lasts 3-4 days. Inside the cocoon, the caterpillar turns into a butterfly, which, having made a hole in the cocoon with an alkaline liquid, comes out of it. Such a cocoon is unsuitable for further unwinding. Cocoon threads are very thin, so they are unwound simultaneously from several cocoons (6-8), connecting them into one complex thread. This thread is called raw silk. The total length of the unwinding thread is on average 1000-1300 m.
The scrap remaining after unwinding the cocoon (a thin shell that cannot be unwinded, containing about 20% of the length of the thread), rejected cocoons are processed into short fibers, from which silk yarn is obtained.
^ Chemical fibers
Chemical fibers are obtained by chemical processing of natural (cellulose, proteins, etc.) or synthetic high-molecular substances (polyamides, polyesters, etc.).
The technological process of manufacturing chemical fibers consists of three main stages - obtaining a spinning solution, forming fibers from it and finishing the fibers. The resulting spinning solution enters dies - metal caps with small holes (Fig. 6) - and flows out of them in the form of continuous streams, which harden in a dry or wet way (air or water) and turn into filaments.
The shape of the holes of the spinnerets is usually round, and to obtain profiled threads, spinnerets with holes in the form of a triangle, polyhedron, stars, etc. are used (Fig. 24).
^ Rice. 24 Chemical fibers under a microscope: 1 – longitudinal view, 2 – cross-sectional shape
When producing short fibers, spinnerets with big amount holes. Elementary threads from many spinnerets are combined into one bundle and cut into fibers of the required length, which corresponds to the length of natural fibers. The formed fibers are subjected to finishing.
Depending on the type of finish, the fibers are white, dyed, shiny or matted.
^ Man-made fibers
Artificial fibers are obtained from natural high-molecular compounds - cellulose, proteins, metals, their alloys, silicate glasses.
The most common artificial fiber is viscose, produced from cellulose. For the production of viscose fiber, wood pulp, mainly spruce pulp, is usually used. The wood is split, treated with chemicals, and turned into a spinning solution - viscose.
Viscose fibers are produced in the form of complex threads and fibres, their application varies.
^
2. Textile processing technology
2.1 Lecture No. 6. Spinning technology
Spinning is a set of processes as a result of which a continuous thread is formed from a shapeless compressed fibrous mass. The fibers are first ruffled, subjected to impact, then carded with needle-shaped surfaces and a ribbon is formed from the carding, i.e., a fiber bundle. To equalize the thickness, the tapes are folded and then pulled out using rollers rotating at an increasing speed. Gradually making the ribbons thinner and slightly twisting them, a roving is obtained, and finally, a thread is formed from the roving by drawing and twisting.
Fibers can be long or short, thick or thin, straight or crimped. The choice of spinning system, machine design, and processing mode depend on the listed parameters and the purpose of the yarn. In order to provide the yarn with the required properties, in some cases new operations are added to the ones listed above, complicating and lengthening the process, in others, on the contrary, the process is simplified and shortened.
There are three main spinning systems:
hardware room
carded
combed
The hardware system differs from the other two in the absence of alignment and drawing processes. As a result, the fibers in the hardware yarn are unoriented and bent, and the yarn is loose and uneven in thickness. In combed spinning, thanks to combing, during which short fibers are removed and the remaining long ones are well straightened and oriented, as well as due to repeated folding and drawing, the yarn is uniform in thickness and smooth. In carded yarn, the fibers are also straightened and oriented, but not as well as in combed yarn, so it is less uniform in thickness and smooth.
In order to obtain yarn of the designed thickness as a result of spinning, spinning plans are drawn up, which indicate how many times at different stages of processing the semi-finished product needs to be folded and pulled - and what its thickness should be as a result of this when entering and exiting each machine.
Mixing.
One of the critical operations in the spinning process is mixing. The purpose of mixing is to create a mixture that produces yarn of the required quality. The mixture can be composed of fibers of the same nature - cotton, flax, wool, or different - cotton with viscose staple fibers, wool with lavsan fibers, etc.
To ensure a certain quality of manufactured products, the mixtures are standardized. Mixing of fibers is carried out at different stages of their processing and should ensure the receipt of a homogeneous mass consisting of well mixed components of the mixture in certain combinations.
^ Rice. 25. Diagram of the working parts of the feeder-mixer.
Loosening and fraying.
The fibers arrive at the spinning mill in highly compressed form, packaged in bales. The fibrous mass contains impurities, to separate which the compressed layers of fibers are separated into shreds. Loosening and release of impurities is achieved by the impact of knife and peg drums, slats and needles on loose or clamped fibers. In this case, large impurities are released under the grate.
Cotton fibers on loosening machines such as feeder-mixers are exposed to the influence of working bodies in a free state (Fig. 25). The fibers supplied by the feed grid 1 are captured by the needles of the needle cloth 2, which lift them and bring them to the pegs of the leveling drum 3. The pegs hit the fibers, crush large shreds, partially throw them back, while small shreds remaining on the needles are removed from the front of the machine by a removable roller 4. Since the fibers on machines of this type receive impacts from the working elements, being in a free state, they are almost not damaged, but the amount of impurities released is very small.
The working parts of scutching machines exert a more energetic impact on the clamped fibers. Fig. 26, a shows a diagram of the working parts of a scooping machine with pegs or knife drums, in Fig. 26, b - with a plank rake. Slowly fed by feed cylinders 1, the fibers fall under rapidly rotating pegs, knives, or scythes 2. The shreds separated from the total mass under their impacts hit the grate 3 and heavier and larger impurities are released from them, falling into its holes, while the fibers are exposed to centrifugal force or air draft are removed from the machine. Knife and peg drums deliver pinpoint blows, from which the fibers can be partially deflected, moving apart. Therefore, machines of this type cause less damage to fibers than machines with slat blades. When shaking the fibers by the working parts of scattering machines, a lot of dust and fluff are released; to remove them, scattering machines are equipped with mesh dust-separating drums and condensers connected to ventilation devices.
^ Fig.26. Diagram of the working parts of the scooping machine: a - with a knife drum; b- with a three-beater.
Depending on the type of fiber being processed, loosening and fraying are carried out using machines of various designs.
Carding.
The purpose of carding on carding machines is to separate the shreds into individual fibers and to separate from them the smallest, tenacious impurities that were not removed by the scutching machines. At the same time, the fibers straighten somewhat and become more parallel.
The carding is carried out between two surfaces covered with a needle (carded) or serrated type. If the headset needles are directed towards each other, and the surfaces move in different sides or one, but with at different speeds(Fig. 27, a), the scraps of fibers are pulled in different directions by the needles of both surfaces - combing occurs.
^ Rice. 27. Location of the needle surfaces of the carding machine: a - during carding; b - when moving from one surface to another.
There are two types of carding machines: hat cards, used in spinning cotton and staple fibers, and roller cards, which comb longer fibers - wool, flax tow.
On flattening machines (Fig. 28, a), a needle or saw-blade drum 1 is one-third surrounded by a flattening cloth 2, consisting of metal strips connected to each other by a chain, covered with a needle-shaped (carded) surface. The set of drum and hats has needles arranged towards each other. Between the rapidly rotating drum and the slowly moving flat sheet, the cotton fibers move from one surface to another and are combed.
Fig.28. Interaction of needle surfaces: a - main drum and flat web on a flat carding machine; b - the main drum and working rollers on a felting carding machine.
On roller machines Along the circumference of drum 1 (Fig. 28, b) there are several pairs of working 2 and removable 3 rollers. Between the needles of a fast-moving drum and a slowly moving working roller, which have a counter-inclination, the carding is carried out. In this case, part of the fibers is carried away by the drum, and part goes to the working roller. Since υP<υC<υб, съемный валик своими иглами счищает волокна с рабочего валика и передает их на барабан.
On carding machines, used in carding cotton, staple fibers, flax tow and combed wool, the combed fibers in the form of fleece are removed from the needles by a comb and sent into a funnel, which forms a rope from them, called a sliver. The tapes are laid in coils in belt cans and transferred to the belt department.
In machine spinning, the carding is carried out on two or three carding machines arranged in series, on the so-called two- or three-card machine. The last of the machines is equipped with a roving carriage, which converts the fleece not into a tape, as in the previous case, but forms a roving from it. This is done with the help of special dividing straps that tear the fleece into narrow strips. To give the strips a round shape, they are twisted using knotting arms that perform reciprocating movements and roll the strips into a roving of circular cross-section.
In addition to carding, long-staple cotton and wool are carded on combing machines.
The essence of the operation of a periodic combing machine is as follows: fibers clamped by a vice 1 (Fig. 29, a) are first combed with a round comb 2. In this case, shorter fibers not clamped by a vice and impurities are combed out of the beard, and the fibers are straightened and parallel arrangement. Then the combed end of the beard is captured by separating rollers 3 (Fig. 29, b), the vice opens, a flat comb 4 is lowered from above and combs the opposite end of the beard. The ends of the new beard overlap the old one, forming a continuous band.
^ Fig.29. Diagram of the working parts of a combing machine.
Leveling and drawing.
Slivers received from both carding and combing machines are sent to the sliver department for leveling and drawing. Alignment and simultaneous mixing of fibers is achieved by adding several tapes into one (Fig. 30), reducing the unevenness of the newly obtained tape. Moreover, the greater the number of folded strips, the more uniform the product becomes.
The drawing apparatus of draw frames consists of several pairs of drawing rollers. Due to the increasing rotation speed of the exhaust rollers, the tapes gradually become thinner.
Kiryukhin Sergey Mikhailovich - Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation. After graduating from the Moscow Textile Institute (MIT) in 1962, he successfully worked in the field of materials science, standardization, certification, qualimetry and quality management of textile materials in a number of industry sectors. scientific research Tel institutes. Constantly combined research work with teaching activities in higher educational institutions.
to the present | ||
S. M. Kiryukhin works in Moscow | state |
stylish university named after. A. N. Kosygina is a professor at the Department of Textile Materials Science, and has more than 150 scientific methodological works on the quality of textile materials, including textbooks and monographs.
Shustov Yuri Stepanovich - Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Textile Materials Science at Moscow State Textile University named after A. N. Kosygin. Author of 4 books on textile topics and more than 150 scientific and methodological publications.
The area of scientific and pedagogical activity is quality assessment and modern methods of predicting physical- mechanical properties textile materials for various purposes.
TEXTBOOKS AND TUTORIALS FOR HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS STUDENTS
S. M. KIRYUKHIN, Y. S. SHUSTOV
TEXTILE
MATERIALS SCIENCE
Recommended by the Educational Institution for Education in the field of technology and design of textile products as a teaching aid for students of higher educational institutions studying in the areas 260700 “Technology and design of textile products”, 240200 “Chemical technology of polymer fibers and textile materials”, 071500
_> “Artistic design of textile and light industry products” and specialty 080502 “Economics”
Mika and enterprise management"
MOSCOW "KoposS" 2011
4r b
K 43
Editor I. S. Tarasova
REVIEWERS: Dr. Tech. Sciences, Prof. A. P. Zhikharev (MSUDT), dr. tech. Sciences, Prof.K. E. Razumeev (Central Research Institute of Wool)
Kiryukhin S.M., Shustov Yu.S.
K 43 Textile materials science. - M.: KolosS, 2011. - 360 e.: ill. - (Textbooks and teaching aids for students of higher educational institutions).
ISBN 978 - 5 - 9532 - 0619 - 8
General information about the properties of fibers, threads, fabrics, knitted and nonwoven materials is provided. The features of their structure, methods of production, and methods for determining quality indicators are considered. Control and quality management of textile materials are covered.
For students of higher educational institutions in the specialties “Textile Technology” and “Standardization and Certification”.
Educational edition
Kiryukhin Sergey Mikhailovich, Shustov Yuri Stepanovich
TEXTILE MATERIALS SCIENCE
Textbook for universities
Art editor V. A. Churakova Computer layoutpp. I. Sharova Computer graphicsT. Yu. Kutuzova
Proofreader T. D. Zvyagintseva
UDC 677-037(075.8) BBK 37.23-3ya73
PREFACE
This textbook is intended for students of higher educational institutions studying the discipline “Textile Materials Science” and related courses. These are, first of all, future technological engineers whose work is related to the production and processing of textile materials. An engineer can successfully manage technological processes and improve them only if he is well aware of the structural features and properties of the materials being processed and the specific requirements for the quality of the products.
The textbook contains the necessary information about the structure, properties and quality assessment of the main types of textile fibers, threads and products, basic information about standard testing methods for textile materials, about the organization and conduct of technical control at the enterprise.
Indicators and characteristics of properties by which the quality of textile materials is assessed are standardized by current standards. Knowledge, correct application and strict adherence to the standards applicable to textile materials ensures the production of products of a given quality. At the same time, a special place is occupied by standards for testing methods for the properties of textile materials, with the help of which product quality indicators are assessed and controlled.
Product quality control is not limited to the correct application of standard test methods. Of great importance is the rational organization and effective functioning of the entire system of control operations in production, which is carried out by the technical control department at the enterprise.
Technical control ensures the release of products of a given quality, carrying out incoming control of raw materials and auxiliary materials, control
raw materials and auxiliary materials, control and regulation of the properties of semi-finished products and components, technological process parameters, quality indicators of manufactured products. However, for a systematic and systematic improvement of quality, it is necessary to constantly carry out a set of various measures aimed at influencing the conditions and factors that determine the quality of products at all stages of its formation. This leads to the need to develop and implement quality management systems at enterprises.
Methods for obtaining and features of processing textile materials are presented briefly and only as necessary. A more in-depth study of these issues should be carried out in special courses on the technology of production and processing of certain types of fibers, threads and textile products.
“Textile materials science” can be used as a basis for materials science students completing their studies at the relevant departments in various specialties and specializations. For an in-depth study of the structure, properties, assessment and quality management of textile materials, special courses are recommended for materials science students.
Students of economics, designers, confectioners, etc., studying at textile universities, can also use this manual.
This textbook has been prepared based on the experience of the Department of Textile Materials Science at Moscow State Technical University. A. N. Kosygina. It uses materials from previously published well-known and widely used similar educational publications, primarily “Textile Materials Science” in three parts by professors G. N. Kukin,
A. N. Solovyov and A. I. Koblyakov.
IN The study guide has five chapters, at the end of which there are test questions and tasks. The bibliography includes primary and secondary sources. The main literary sources are given in order of their importance for studying the course.
Chapter 1 GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1. SUBJECT OF TEXTILE MATERIALS SCIENCE
Textile materials science is the science of the structure, properties and quality assessment of textile materials. This definition was given in 1985. Taking into account the changes that have occurred since that time, as well as the peculiarities of the development of the training of materials scientists, the following definition may be more complete and profound: textile materials science is the science of the structure, properties, evaluation, quality control and management of textile materials.
The fundamental principles of this science are the study of textile materials used by man in various types of his activities.
Textile refers to both materials consisting of textile fibers and the textile fibers themselves.
Studying various materials and their constituent substances has always been the subject of natural sciences and has been associated with technical means of obtaining and processing these materials and substances. Therefore, textile materials science belongs to the group of technical sciences of an applied nature.
Most textile fibers consist of high-molecular substances, and therefore textile materials science is closely related to the use of theoretical foundations and practical methods of such fundamental disciplines as physics and chemistry, as well as the physical chemistry of polymers.
Since textile materials science is a technical science, its study also requires general engineering knowledge obtained from the study of such disciplines as mechanics, strength of materials, electrical engineering, electronics, automation, etc. A special place is occupied by the physical and chemical mechanics (rheology) of fiber-forming polymers.
In textile materials science, as in other scientific disciplines, higher mathematics, mathematical
statistical statistics and probability theory, as well as modern computational methods and tools.
Knowledge of the structure and properties of textile materials is necessary when selecting and improving technological processes for their production and processing, and ultimately when obtaining a finished textile product of a given quality, assessed by special methods. Thus, textile materials science requires methods for measuring and assessing quality, which are the subject of a relatively new independent discipline - qualimetry.
Processing of textile materials is impossible without quality control of semi-finished products at individual stages of the technological process. Textile materials science is also involved in the development of quality control methods.
AND finally, the last of a wide range of issues related
With textile materials science is the issue of product quality management. This connection is very natural, because without knowledge of the structure and properties of textile materials, methods of assessment and quality control, it is impossible to control the technological process and the quality of the products produced.
Textile materials science should be distinguished from textile commodity science, although they have much in common. Commodity science is a discipline, the main provisions of which are intended to study the consumer properties of finished products used as goods. Commodity science also pays attention to such issues as methods of packaging goods, their transportation, storage, etc., which are usually not included in the tasks of materials science.
Among other related disciplines, it should also be said about the materials science of clothing production, which has much in common with textile materials science. The difference is that less attention is paid to the structure and properties of fibers and threads in the clothing industry than to textile fabrics, but information is added about non-textile finishing materials (natural and artificial leather, fur, oilcloth, etc.).
Let us pay attention to the importance of textile materials in human life.
It is believed that human life is impossible without food, shelter and clothing. The latter mainly consists of textile materials. Draperies, curtains, bed linen, bedspreads, towels, tablecloths and napkins, carpets and floor coverings, knitwear and non-woven materials, laces, twines and much, much more - all these are textile materials, without which the life of a modern person is impossible and which in many ways make this life comfortable and attractive.
Textile materials are used not only in everyday life. Statistics show that in industrialized countries with temperate climates, of the total amount of textile materials consumed, 35...40% is spent on clothing and linen, 20...25% is spent on household and household needs, and 30...35% is consumed in technology. , for other needs (packaging, cultural needs, medicine, etc.) up to 10%. Of course, in individual countries these ratios can vary significantly depending on social conditions, climate, technological development, etc. But we can safely say that there is practically not a single material, and in some cases, spiritual sphere of human activity where textiles are not used. materials. This determines a very significant volume of their production and fairly high requirements for their quality.
Among the diverse issues addressed within the framework of textile materials science, the following can be distinguished:
study of the structure and properties of textile materials, allowing targeted work to improve their quality;
development of methods and technical means for measuring, assessing and monitoring quality indicators of textile materials;
development of theoretical foundations and practical methods for quality assessment, standardization, certification and quality management of textile materials.
Like any other scientific discipline, textile materials science has its own genesis, that is, the history of education and development.
Interest in the structure and properties of textile materials probably arose at the time when they began to be used for various purposes. The history of this issue goes back to ancient times. For example, sheep breeding, which was used, in particular, to obtain wool fibers, was known no less than 6 thousand years BC. e. Flax growing was widespread in Ancient Egypt about 5 thousand years ago. Cotton items found during excavations in India date back to approximately the same time. In our country, in excavation sites of ancient man sites near Ryazan, archaeologists discovered the most ancient textile products, which are a cross between fabric and knitwear. Today such fabrics are called knitted fabrics.
The first documented information about the study of individual properties of textile materials that has reached our time dates back to 250 BC. e., when the Greek mechanic Philo of Byzantium studied the strength and elasticity of ropes.
However, until the Renaissance, only the very first steps were taken in the study of textile materials. At the beginning of the 16th century. the great Italian Leonardo da Vinci studied the friction of ropes and the moisture content of fibers. In a simplified form, he formulated the well-known law of proportionality between a normally applied load and the friction force. By the second half of the 17th century. include the works of the famous English scientist R. Hooke, who studied the mechanical properties of various materials, including threads from flax fibers and
silks. He described the structure of thin silk fabric and was one of the first to express the idea of the possibility of producing chemical threads.
The need for systematic research into the structure and properties of textile materials began to be felt more and more with the emergence and development of manufacturing. While simple commodity production dominated and small artisans acted as producers, they dealt with a small amount of raw materials. Each of them was limited primarily to an organoleptic assessment of the properties and quality of materials. The concentration of large quantities of textile materials in manufactories required a different approach to their assessment and necessitated their study. This was also facilitated by the expansion of trade in textile materials, including between different countries. Therefore, from the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. In a number of European countries, official requirements are established for the quality indicators of fibers, threads and fabrics. These requirements are approved by government agencies in the form of various regulations and even laws. For example, Italian (Piedmontese) regulations of 1681 on the operation of silk factories established requirements for silk raw materials - cocoons. According to these requirements, cocoons, depending on the silk content in their shell and the ability to unwind, were divided into several varieties.
IN In Russia, laws on the quality and methods of sorting raw fibers supplied for export and to supply manufactories producing yarn and canvas for the navy, as well as cloth for supplying the army, appeared in the 18th century. The first known date of publication was Law No. 635 of April 26, 1713 “On the rejection of hemp and flax near the city of Arkhangelsk.” This was followed by laws on the width, length and weight (i.e. mass) of linen (1715), on the control of the thickness, twist and moisture of hemp yarn (1722), the shrinkage of cloth after soaking (1731), their length and width (1741), the quality of their coloring and their durability (1744), etc.
IN These documents began to mention the first simple instrumental methods for measuring individual quality indicators of textile materials. Thus, a law issued in Russia under Peter I in 1722 required monitoring the thickness of hemp yarn for ropes by pulling samples of it through holes of various sizes made in iron boards to determine “whether it is as thick as it should be.”
IN XVIII century the first objective instrumental methods for measuring and assessing the properties and quality indicators of textile materials are emerging and developing. This lays the foundation for the future science of textile materials science.
IN first half of the 18th century French physicist R. Reaumur designed one of the first tensile testing machines and studied the strength of hemp and silk
twisted threads. In 1750, in Turin (Northern Italy), one of the world's first laboratories for testing the properties of textile materials, called “conditioning”, appeared and controlled the humidity of raw silk. This was the first prototype of currently operating certification laboratories. Later, “conditions” began to appear in other European countries, for example in France, where wool, yarn of various types, etc. were studied. At the end of the 18th century. devices appeared for estimating the thickness of threads by unwinding skeins of constant length on special reels and weighing them on lever scales - quadrants. Similar reels and quadrants were produced in St. Petersburg by the mechanical workshops of the Aleksandrovskaya Manufactory, the largest Russian textile mill, founded in 1799.
In the field of studying the properties of textile raw materials and the search for new types of fibers, the work of the first corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, P. I. Rychkov (1712-1777), a prominent historian, geographer and economist, should be noted. He was one of the first Russian scientists working in the field of textiles.
of materials science. In a number of his articles, published in the “Proceedings of the Free Economic Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture and House Construction in Russia,” he raised questions about the use of goat and camel wool, some plant fibers, cotton cultivation, etc.
In the 19th century Textile materials science was actively developing in almost all European countries, including Russia.
Let us note only some of the main dates in the development of domestic textile materials science.
In the first half of the 19th century. In Russia, educational institutions arose that trained specialists who were already provided with information about the properties of textile materials in training courses. Such secondary educational institutions include the Practical Academy of Commercial Sciences, opened in Moscow in 1806, which trained commodity experts, and among the higher educational institutions - the Technological Institute
V Petersburg, founded in 1828 and opened for classes in 1831.
IN mid-19th century At Moscow University and the Moscow Practical Academy, the activities of the outstanding Russian commodity expert prof.
M. J. Kittara, who paid great attention to the study of textile materials in his works. He organized the department of technology, a technical laboratory, gave lectures where the general classification of goods, including textiles, was given, and supervised the development of testing methods and rules for accepting textile products for the Russian army.
IN end of the 19th century in Russia, laboratories for testing textile materials began to be created at educational institutions, and then at large textile factories. One of the first was the laboratory at the Moscow Higher Technical School (MVTU), which was founded in 1882 by prof. F. M. Dmitriev. His successor, one of the largest Russian textile scientists, prof. S.A. Fedorov in 1895-1903 organized a large laboratory for mechanical technology of textile materials and a testing station attached to it. In his work “On Testing Yarn” in 1897, he wrote: “In practice, when researching yarn, until now we have usually been guided by the usual impressions of touch, vision, and hearing. This kind of definition required, of course, great skill. Anyone who is familiar with the practice of paper spinning and who has worked with measuring instruments knows that these instruments in many cases confirm our conclusions drawn by sight and touch, but sometimes they say something completely opposite to what we think. Instruments thus exclude randomness and subjectivity, and through them we obtain data on which we can build a completely impartial judgment.” The work “On Yarn Testing” summarized all the main methods used at that time for studying threads.
The MVTU laboratory played a major role in the development of Russian textile materials science. In 1911-1912 in this laboratory, research was carried out by the “Commission for the processing of descriptions, acceptance conditions and all conditions for the supply of fabrics to the commissariat,” headed by prof. S. A. Fedorov. At the same time, numerous fabric tests were carried out and the methods of these tests were refined. These studies were published in the work of prof. N. M. Chilikin “On testing fabrics,” published in 1912. Since 1915, this scientist began teaching a special course at the Moscow Higher Technical School “Materials Science of Fibrous Substances,” which was the first university course in textile materials science in Russia. In 1910-1914. A number of works were carried out at the Moscow Higher Technical University by the outstanding Russian textile scientist prof. N. A. Vasiliev. These included studies evaluating methods for testing yarns and fabrics. Deeply understanding the importance of testing the properties of materials for the practical work of the factory, this remarkable scientist wrote: “The testing station should also be one of the departments of the factory, not an additional closet with two or three devices, but a department equipped with everything necessary for successful production control, with the purpose of
figurative apparatus, if possible automatically testing samples and keeping records, and finally, must have a manager who can not only maintain all devices in a state of constant proper operation, but also systematize the results obtained in accordance with the goals pursued. Production, of course, will only benefit from such an approach to testing.” These wonderful words should always be remembered by textile production engineers.
IN In 1889, the first scientific society of textile workers was organized in Russia, called the “Society for Promoting the Improvement and Development of the Manufacturing Industry.” The “Izvestia” of the society, published under the editorship of N. N. Kukin, published a number of works on the study of the properties of textile materials, in particular the work of engineer A. G. Razuvaev. During 1882-1904 this researcher conducted numerous tests on various fabrics. The results of these tests were summarized in his work “Investigation of the Resistance of Fibrous Substances.” A. G. Razuvaev and the Austrian engineer A. Rosenzweig were the first textile workers who simultaneously (1904) first applied the methods of mathematical statistics to the processing of test results of textile materials.
IN 1914, an outstanding teacher and major specialist in the field of testing textile materials, prof. A. G. Arkhangelsky published the book “Fibers, Yarns and Fabrics,” which became the first systematic manual in Russian, which described the properties of these materials. The works and courses taught at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries were of great importance for the development of Russian materials science. in different commodity science and economic higher and secondary educational institutions in Moscow by professors Ya. Ya. Nikitinsky and P. P. Petrov and others. The widespread use of information about textile materials in the educational process made it possible to speak of a fairly large accumulated experience in studying their structure and properties.
IN 1919 in Moscow at the base At the spinning and weaving school, a textile technical school was organized, which on December 8, 1920 was equated to a higher educational institution and transformed into the Moscow Practical Textile Institute. The history of this higher educational institution began back in 1896, when at a trade and industrial congress during the All-Russian Exhibition in Nizhny Novgorod, it was decided to organize a school in Moscow at the Society to promote the improvement and development of the manufacturing industry. In accordance with this decision, a spinning and weaving school was opened in Moscow, which existed from 1901 to 1919.
The course “Textile Materials Science” was taught from the first years of the formation of the Moscow Textile Institute (MIT). One of the first teachers of textile materials science was prof. N. M. Chilikin. In 1923, at the institute, assistant professor. N.I. Slobozhaninov created a laboratory for testing textile materials, and in 1944 - the department of textile materials science. The organizer of the department and its first head was the outstanding textile scientist and materials scientist, honorable. scientist prof. G. N. Kukin (1907-1991)
In 1927, the first Scientific Research Textile Institute (NITI) in our country was created in Moscow, where, under the leadership of N. S. Fedorov, a large testing laboratory, the Textile Materials Testing Bureau, began its work. NITI research has made it possible to improve testing methods for various textile materials. Yes, Prof. V. E. Zotikov, prof. N. S. Fedorov, engineer. V. N. Zhukov, prof. A. N. Solovyov created a domestic method for testing cotton fiber. The structure of cotton, the properties of silk and chemical threads, the mechanical properties of threads, the unevenness of yarn thickness were studied, and mathematical methods for processing test results were widely used.
In the late 20s - early 30s, work on textile materials science
V our country received a practical solution, which consisted in the standardization of textile materials. IN 1923-1926 at MIT under the guidance of prof.
N. J. Kanarsky conducted research related to the standardization of wool. Prof. V.V. Linde and his employees were involved in the standardization of raw silk. The first standards for the main types of threads, fabrics and other textile products were developed and approved. Since then, standardization work has become an integral part of materials science research on textile materials.
IN 1930 The Ivanovo Textile Institute was opened in Ivanovo, separated from Ivanovo-Voznesensk Polytechnic Institute, organized by
V 1918 and had a spinning- weaving department. In the same year in Leningrad on the basis of the Mechanical and Technological Institute named after. Lensovet (formerly St. Petersburg Technological Institute named after Nicholas I) to meet the needs of the domestic textile industry for qualified engineering personnel, the Leningrad Institute of Textile and Light Industry (LITLP) was created. Both of these higher educational institutions had departments of textile materials science.
IN 1934 NITI was divided into separate sectoral institutes: the cotton industry (TsNIIKhBI), the bast fiber industry (TsNIILV), the wool industry (TsNIIWool), the silk industry (VNIIKhV), the knitting industry (VNIITP), etc. All these institutes had testing laboratories , departments or laboratories of textile materials science that conducted fundamental and applied research into the structure and properties of textile materials, as well as work on their standardization.
The peculiarity of works on textile materials science is that they are independent in nature and at the same time are mandatory in the research work of textile and clothing production engineers. This is due to the production of new textile materials, the improvement of their processing technology, the introduction of new types of processing and finishing, etc. In all these cases, it is necessary to carefully study the properties of textile materials, study the influence of various factors on changes in the properties and quality indicators of raw materials, semi-finished products and finished textile products.
In the first half of the 20th century. a powerful base of domestic textile materials science was created, which successfully solved various problems that the textile and light industry of our country faced at that time.
In the second half of the 20th century. The development of domestic textile materials science has received new qualitative features and directions. Scientific schools of leading textile scientists and materials scientists were formed. In Moscow (MIT) these are professors G.N. Kukin and A.N. Solovyov, in Leningrad (LITLP) - M.I. Sukharev, in Ivanovo (IvTI) - prof. A.K. Kiselev. Since the 1950s, international scientific and practical conferences on textile materials science have been systematically held once every four years, initiated by the head of the Department of Textile Materials Science at MIT, Prof. G. N. Kukin. In 1959, this department graduated its first engineers-technologists with a specialization in textile materials science. Later, taking into account the requirements of industry and the economic situation in the country, MIT at the Department of Textile Materials Science began to train process engineers with specializations in metrology, standardization and product quality management. Materials engineers became certified generalists in the quality of textile materials. Similar work was carried out at the departments of materials science LITLP in Leningrad and IvTI
in Ivanovo. These trends are reflected in the work of materials science departments and laboratories of industry research institutes of textile and light industry. Since the 1970s, the volume of materials science work on standardization and quality management of textile materials has increased significantly, and methods of reliability theory and qualimetry have become widely used.
End of the 20th century made significant changes in the development of domestic textile materials science. The country's transition to new forms of economic development, a sharp decline in production in the textile and light industry, a significant decrease in state funding for science and education led to a significant slowdown in the pace of development of materials science work in industry research institutes of textile and light industry and in the departments of materials science of relevant higher educational institutions, but new content of works on textile materials science.
Textile materials science of the late 20th - early 21st centuries. - these are automatic and semi-automatic testing devices with software control based on a PC, including testing complexes of the “Spinlab” type for assessing the quality indicators of cotton fiber; These are fundamental and applied comprehensive studies of traditional and new textile materials, including ultra-thin fibers of organic and inorganic origin, ultra-strong threads for technical and special purposes, composite materials reinforced with textiles, the so-called “smart and thinking” fabrics that can change their properties depending on the temperature of the human body or the environment, and much, much more.
Futurologists consider the 21st century. century of textiles as one of the essential components of a comfortable human life. Therefore, we can assume the appearance in the 21st century. a wide variety of fundamentally new textile materials, the successful processing and effective use of which will require in-depth materials science research.
The development of textile materials science is, of course, based on the latest achievements of the fundamental sciences mentioned above. At the same time, some publications note that research on textile materials has determined some areas of modern science. For example, it is believed that the study of amino acids in the keratin of wool fibers served as the basis for the development of DNA research and genetic engineering. The work of the English materials scientist C. Pearce on the influence of clamping length on the strength characteristics of cotton yarn (1926) formed the modern statistical theory of the strength of various materials, called the “weakest link theory”. Control and elimination of textile thread breaks in technological processes of textile production were the practical basis for the development of mathematical methods of statistical control and queuing theory, etc.
The development of textile materials science is described in detail by G. N. Kukin, A. N. Solovyov and A. I. Koblyakov in their textbooks, which provide an analysis of the development of textile materials science not only in Russia and in the former republics of the USSR,
but also in European countries, the USA and Japan.
Work on materials science will find increasing practical application in standardization, control, technical expertise, certification of textile materials and their quality management.
1.2. PROPERTIES AND QUALITY INDICATORS OF TEXTILE MATERIALS
Textile materials- These are primarily textile fibers and threads, textile products made from them, as well as various intermediate fibrous materials obtained in textile production processes - semi-finished products and waste.
Textile fiber - an extended body, flexible and durable, with small transverse dimensions, of limited length, suitable for the manufacture of textile threads and products.
Fibers can be natural, chemical, organic and inorganic, elemental and complex.
Natural fibers are formed in nature without direct human participation. They are sometimes called natural fibers. They come from plant, animal and mineral origin.
Natural plant fibers are obtained from the seeds, stems, leaves and fruits of plants. This is, for example, cotton, the fibers of which are formed from the seeds of the cotton plant. Fibers of flax, hemp (hemp), jute, kenaf, ramie lie in the stems of plants. Sisal fiber is obtained from the leaves of the tropical agave plant, and the so-called Manila hemp - manila - from abaca. The natives obtain coir fiber from the coconut fruit, which is used in handicraft textiles.
Natural fibers of plant origin are also called cellulose, since they all consist mainly of a natural organic high-molecular substance - cellulose.
Natural fibers of animal origin form the hair of various animals (wool of sheep, goats, camels, llamas, etc.) or are secreted by insects from special glands. For example, natural silk is obtained from mulberry or oak silkworms at the caterpillar - pupa stage of development, when they curl threads around their body, forming dense shells - cocoons.
Animal fibers consist of natural organic high-molecular compounds - fibrillar proteins, which is why they are also called protein or “animal” fibers.
Natural inorganic fiber from minerals is asbestos, obtained from minerals of the serpentine group (chrysotile asbestos) or amphibole (amphibole-asbestos), which, when processed, can split into thin flexible and durable fibers 1...18 mm or more in length.
Currently, about 27 million tons of natural fibers are produced in the world. The growth in production volumes of these fibers is objectively limited by the real resources of the natural environment, which are estimated at 30...35 million tons annually. Therefore, the ever-increasing demand for textile materials, which today amounts to 10... 12 kg per person per year, will be satisfied mainly by chemical fibers.
Chemical fibers are manufactured with the direct participation of humans from natural or pre-synthesized substances through chemical, physicochemical and other processes. In English-speaking countries, these fibers are called man made, i.e. “made by man.” The main substances for the manufacture of chemical fibers are fiber-forming polymers, which is why they are sometimes called polymers.
There are artificial and synthetic chemical fibers. Artificial fibers are made from substances that exist in nature, and synthetic fibers are made from materials that do not exist in nature and which are pre-synthesized in one way or another. For example, artificial viscose fiber is obtained from natural cellulose, and synthetic nylon fiber is obtained from caprolactam polymer, obtained by synthesis from petroleum distillation products.
Chemical fibers are grouped and sometimes named by the type of high molecular weight substance or compound from which they are obtained. In table 1.1 shows the most common of them, and also gives some names of chemical fibers accepted in various countries and their symbols.
Chemical fibers for processing, including those mixed with natural fibers, are cut or torn into pieces of a certain length. Such pieces are called staple and are designated by the symbol F, and depending on their purpose they are divided into types: cotton (S), wool (wt), linen (I), jute (jt), carpet (tt) and fur (pt). For example, flax-type polyester staple fiber is designated PE-F-lt.
High molecular weight substances and compounds
Polyester
Polypropylene
Polyamide
Table 1.1 |
||
Fiber name | Conditional |
|
designation |
||
Lavsan (Russia), Elana (Poland), | ||
Dacron (USA), Terylene (UK- | ||
niya, Germany), tetlon (Japan) | ||
Mercalon (Italy), propene (USA), | ||
Proplan (France), Ulstron (Great Britain) | ||
UK), canvas (Germany) | ||
Kapron (Russia), Kaprolan (USA), | ||
stilon (Poland), dederon, perlon | ||
(Germany), Amylan (Japan), nylon | ||
(USA, UK, Japan, etc.) |
Polyacrylonitrile
Polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride Cellulose
Nitron (Russia), dralon, betrayed | |
(Germany), anilan (Poland), acrylic | |
lon (USA), cashmilon (Japan) | |
Chlorine (Russia), saran (USA, Be- | |
UK, Japan, Germany) | |
Viscose (Russia), Villana, Danulon | |
(Germany), viscon (Poland), visco | |
Lon (USA), Diafil (Japan) | |
Acetate (Russia), fortainez (USA, |
|
UK), Rialin (Germany), | |
minalon (Japan) |
Chemical fibers are mostly organic, but they can also be inorganic, for example glass, metal, ceramic, basalt, etc. As a rule, these are fibers for technical and special purposes.
There are elementary and complex textile fibers. Elemental fiber- this is a primary single fiber that is not divided along the axis into small pieces without destroying the fiber itself. Complex fiber- a fiber consisting of elementary fibers glued together or linked intermolecularly
new forces.
Examples of complex fibers are bast plant fibers (flax, hemp, etc.) and asbestos mineral fiber. Sometimes complex fibers are called technical, since their separation into elementary fibers occurs during the technological processes of their processing.
The global production of chemical fibers is rapidly developing. Having emerged at the beginning of the 20th century, only in the period 1950-2000. it increased from 1.7 million tons to 28 million tons, i.e. more than 16 times.
Fibers are the raw materials for the manufacture of textile threads and products.
A detailed classification of textile threads and products, features of their structure, the main stages of production and properties are given in Chapter. 3 and 4.
Let's consider the properties and quality indicators of textile materials.
Properties of textile materials - this is an objective feature of textile materials, which manifests itself during their production, processing and operation.
The properties of the main types of textile materials are divided into the following groups.
Properties of structure and structure - the structure and structure of the substances that form textile fibers (the degree of polymerization, crystallinity, features of the supramolecular structure, etc.), as well as the structure and structure of the fibers themselves (the order of microfibrils, the presence or absence of a shell, a fiber channel, etc. ). For threads, this is the relative position of their constituent fibers and filaments, determined by the twist of the yarn and threads. The structure and structure of fabrics are characterized by the interlacing of the threads that make it up, their relative arrangement and number in the element of the fabric structure (phases of fabric structure, density of warp and weft, etc.).
Geometric properties determine the dimensions of fibers and threads (length, linear density, cross-sectional shape, etc.), as well as the dimensions of fabrics and piece goods (width, length, thickness, etc.).
Mechanical properties textile materials are characterized by their attitude to the action of various forces and deformations applied to them (tension, compression, torsion, bending, etc.).
Depending on the method of implementing the test cycle “load - unloading - rest”, the characteristics of the mechanical properties of textile fibers, threads and products are divided into half-cycle, single-cycle and multi-cycle. Half-cycle characteristics are obtained by performing part of the test cycle - load without unloading or with unloading, but without subsequent rest. These characteristics determine the relationship of materials to a single load or deformation (for example, the tensile strength of a material until failure is determined). Single-cycle characteristics are obtained in the process of implementing the full cycle “load - unloading - rest”. They determine the characteristics of direct and reverse deformation of materials, their ability to maintain their initial shape, etc. Multi-cycle characteristics are obtained as a result of repeated repetition of the test cycle. They can be used to judge the material’s resistance to repeated force or deformation (resistance to repeated stretching, bending, abrasion resistance, etc.).
Physical properties - this is the mass, hygroscopicity, permeability of textile materials. Physical properties also include thermal, optical, electrical, acoustic, radiation and other properties of textile fibers, threads and products.
Chemical properties determine the relationship of textile materials to the action of various chemicals. This is, for example, the solubility of fibers in acids, alkalis, etc. or resistance to their action.
Material properties can be simple or complex. Complex properties are characterized by several simple properties. Examples of complex properties of textile materials are shrinkage of fibers, threads and fabrics, wear resistance of textiles, color fastness, etc.
A special group should include properties that determine the appearance of textile materials, for example, the color of the fabric, the cleanliness and absence of foreign inclusions in textile fibers, the absence of defects in the appearance of threads and fabrics, etc.
One of the important characteristics of the properties of textile materials is their homogeneity or uniformity.
In the marketing of textile products, properties are divided into functional, consumer, ergonomic, aesthetic, socio-economic, etc. This division is based mainly on the requirements for textile products by the consumer.
The properties of textile materials should be distinguished from the requirements for them, expressed through quality indicators.
Quality indicators - this is a quantitative characteristic of one or more properties of a textile material, considered in relation to certain conditions of its production, processing and operation.
There is a general classification of groups of quality indicators. Assignment indicator group characterizes the properties that determine the correctness and rationality of the use of the material and determine the scope of its application. This group includes: classification indicators, for example, shrinkage of fabrics after washing, depending on which fabrics are divided into non-shrink, low-shrink and shrinkage; functional and technical performance indicators, such as fabric performance indicators; design indicators, such as linear thread density, fabric width, etc.; composition and structure indicators, such as fiber composition, twist
threads, fabric density in warp and weft, etc.
Reliability indicators characterize the reliability, durability and persistence of material properties over time within specified limits, ensuring its effective use for its intended purpose. This group includes such quality indicators of textile materials as resistance to abrasion, repeated deformation, color fastness, etc.
Ergonomic indicators take into account the complex of hygienic, anthropometric, physiological and psychological properties manifested in the person-product-environment system. For example, breathability, vapor permeability and hygroscopicity of fabrics.
Wool is the hair of animals that has spinning properties or feltability.
Wool is one of the main natural textile fibers.
There are natural, industrial and regenerated wool.
Natural wool
- wool, wool that is sheared from animals (sheep, goat, etc.), combed (camel, dog, goat and rabbit fluff) or collected during shedding (cow, horse, sarly) This wool is of the highest quality.
Factory wool
- This is wool taken from animal skins; it is less durable than natural wool.
Reclaimed wool
- wool obtained by pinching wool flaps, rags, scraps of yarn. These wool fibers are the least durable.
Milled and recovered wool can be used in the textile industry to make inexpensive broadcloths.
Wool fibers are horny derivatives of skin.
Wool fiber consists of three layers:
1 - Scaly (cuticle) - the outer layer, consists of individual scales, protects the hair body from destruction. The type of flakes and their location determines the degree of gloss of the fiber and its ability to felt (roll, fall off).
2 - Cortical - the main layer, forms the body of the hair, determines its quality.
3 - Core - located in the center of the fiber, consists of cells filled with air.
Depending on the ratio of individual layers, wool fibers are divided into 4 types:
a - fluff: a very thin, soft, crimped fiber with no core layer.
b - transitional hair: thicker and stiffer than fluff. The medullary layer occurs in places.
c - spine: thick, hard fiber with a significant core layer.
d - dead hair: thick, coarse, straight, brittle fiber, the core layer of which occupies the largest part.
Wool consists of outer hair and underfur. In sheep, the outer hair consists of: awn, transitional and covering hair; underfur - fluff.
Sheep wool, depending on the type of fibers that make it up, is divided into homogeneous, represented by fibers of the same type, and heterogeneous. IN uniform wool downy and transitional fibers, combining into groups, form staples(transitional wool fibers of long-haired sheep are homogeneous braids). In heterogeneous wool, down, transition and guard fibers are combined into braids.
Types of wool
Types of wool are distinguished depending on the type of fibers that form the sheep's hair. The following types are distinguished:
- Thin- consists of down fibers, used to produce high-quality woolen fabrics.
- Semi-thin- consists of downy fibers and transitional hair, used for the production of suit and coat fabrics.
- Semi-rough- consists of spine and transitional hair, used for the production of semi-coarse suit and coat fabrics.
- Rough- contains all types of fibers, including dead hair, used for the manufacture of overcoat cloth, felt, felt boots.
Primary processing of wool: sorting by quality, loosening and removing debris, washing from dirt and grease, drying with hot air.
Average fiber fineness: fluff 10 - 25 microns, transitional hair - 30 - 50 microns, spine - 50 microns or more.
Wool fiber length: from 20 to 450mm, distinguished:
— short fiber: length up to 55mm, used for the production of thick and fluffy hardware yarn;
— long fiber: length over 55mm, used to produce fine and smooth combed yarn.
Fiber appearance: matte, warm, color from white (slightly yellowish) to black (the thicker the fiber, the darker the color). The color of the coat is determined by the presence of melanin pigment in the cortex. For technological use, the most valuable is white wool, suitable for dyeing in any color.
Feltability- this is the ability of wool to form a felt-like covering during the felling process. This property is explained by the presence of scales on the surface of the wool, which prevent the fiber from moving in the direction opposite to the location of the scales. Thin, elastic, highly crimped wool has the greatest ability to felt.
Combustion Features : burns slowly, extinguishes itself when removed from the flame, smells of burnt horn, the residue is black fluffy brittle ash.
Chemical composition: natural protein keratin
Effect of chemical reagents on fibers: Destroyed by strong hot sulfuric acid; other acids have no effect. Dissolves in weak alkali solutions. When boiled, wool dissolves in a 2% solution of sodium hydroxide. Under the influence of dilute acids (up to 10%), the strength of wool increases slightly. Under the influence of concentrated nitric acid the wool turns yellow and, under the influence of concentrated sulfuric acid, becomes charred. Insoluble in phenol and acetone.
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The range of dresses is varied, and the requirements for dress materials are correspondingly varied, as the conditions in which they are used are varied.
Hygienic requirements are especially important for fabrics used for sewing home and everyday dresses. The fabrics of everyday dresses should have good hygroscopic properties: moisture absorption and moisture release. For summer dresses, materials must have good breathability, for winter dresses - good heat-insulating properties.
For elegant and evening dresses, hygienic requirements are less significant, so non-compliance with them can be compensated for by choosing the appropriate model and design of the product.
Everyday clothing requires practical, wrinkle-resistant, shape-resistant materials. Fabrics for everyday dresses should be stable to abrasion, to repeated washing, to pilling, must maintain linear dimensions during operation.
Aesthetic requirements change from season to season depending on fashion trends. Changing requirements for the appearance, structure, color, and plastic properties of the material entail a constant change in the range of materials for dresses. At the same time, the following requirements remain unchanged: low weight, increased flexibility and elasticity of materials, limited rigidity.
Fabrics for summer dresses can be bright and multi-colored, for everyday dresses - calm, non-staining colors, for elegant dresses - unusual colors are needed. external effects materials.
Characteristics of the main types of materials for dresses.
Cotton fabrics widely used for children's dresses, for women's home and summer dresses, these are such classic cotton fabrics as chintz, calico, flannel, satin.
Denim fabric with a lightweight structure and reduced rigidity is used for sewing women's and children's sundresses and dresses.
Linen fabrics used for sewing summer dresses. Clean fabrics have increased creasing, so nitron, lavsan, polynose, and siblon staple fibers are added to the yarn. Such fabrics retain the effect of linen fabrics, have sufficient hygroscopicity, wear resistance and shape stability. They are produced in plain, finely patterned and jacquard weaves; the finishing is plain-dyed, printed, variegated, melange.
Wool dress fabrics produced from wool yarn with the addition of chemical fibers: nitron, lavsan, nylon, viscose. These fabrics are intended for the winter and demi-season range of dresses.
The classic ones are. They are easily stretchable, drape well, have slight creasing, and crumble when cut.
To sew dress-suits, they use fine-woven fabrics that are fluffy, soft and warm.
Worsted fabrics made from combed yarn are also used. They are somewhat dry to the touch, have a clear weave pattern, and crumble along the cuts.
The structure and finishing of fabrics are extremely varied. They are produced plain-dyed, variegated, printed, with the addition of goat or rabbit down, Angora wool, from screw-in yarn with complex chemical threads, using textured threads, with neps effects (multi-colored lumps spun into yarn).
Silk fabrics are the most numerous and varied in the range of dress fabrics.
Distinctive properties of polyacrylonitrile fiber
They have a good range of consumer properties. In terms of their mechanical properties, PAN fibers are very close to and in this respect they are superior to all others. They are often called “artificial wool”.
They have maximum light resistance, fairly high strength and relatively high elongation (22-35%). Due to low hygroscopicity, these properties do not change when wet. Products made from them retain their shape after washing
They are characterized by high heat resistance and resistance to nuclear radiation.
They are inert to pollutants, so products made from them are easy to clean. Not damaged by moths and microorganisms.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-1.jpg" alt=">Materials Science">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-2.jpg" alt=">The textile industry produces fabrics, nonwovens, artificial fur, weaving, twisted"> Текстильная промышленность вырабатывает ткани, нетканые материалы, искусственный мех, лентоткацкие, крученые гардинно-тюлевые изделия, ковры и ковровые изделия, вату и другие материалы. Текстильные товары представляют собой материалы сложных структур, формируемые в процессе выработки из !} individual elements(fibers, threads); their properties and quality depend both on the source raw materials and on the production technology. Textile fibers are long, flexible and durable bodies of small sizes, suitable for the manufacture of textile products. Textile threads are fibers whose length is tens and hundreds of meters, suitable for the production of textile products (natural silk threads, chemical threads).
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-4.jpg" alt="> According to the fiber composition, the fibers are divided: 1. Natural (cotton, silk , wool, linen) 2."> По волокнистому составу волокна подразделяются: 1. Натуральные (хлопок, шелк, шерсть, лен) 2. Искусственные (гидратцеллюлозные - вискоза, эфироцеллюлозные - ацетатные) 3. Синтетические (ПА, ПЭФ, ПАН)!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-5.jpg" alt=">Natural fibers are divided into Plant origin § Cotton § Bast fibers"> Натуральные волокна подразделяются Растительного происхождения § Хлопок § Лубяные волокна лён, кенаф, конопля, джут!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-6.jpg" alt="> Composition of cellulose fibers flax cotton viscose cellulose 75"> Состав целлюлозных волокон лен хлопок вискоза целлюлоза 75 -79 96 98 Пектиновые 5 1, 5 1, 2 вещества Жировосков 2, 5 1 0, 5 ые вещества!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-7.jpg" alt="> Animal § Silk § Wool">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-8.jpg" alt="> Composition of protein fibers composition wool silk Protein - 90%"> Состав белковых волокон состав шерсть шелк Белок- 90% - кератин Белок - - 70 -80% фиброин Белок- - 20 -30% серицин!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-9.jpg" alt=">Features of the human body: 1. About 5 liters are excreted during the day carbon dioxide 2."> Особенности организма человека: 1. В течении суток выделяется около 5 л углекислого газа 2. Поступает 2 л кислорода 3. Допустимое содержание углекислого газа в пододежном пространстве составляет 0, 06 -0, 08% (при увеличении содержания до 0, 1% наступает обморочное состояние)!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-10.jpg" alt=">Advantages of natural fibers 1. Hygroscopicity 6 -14% (x/ b – 7 -9%, flax – 9"> Преимущества натуральных волокон 1. Гигроскопичность 6 -14% (х/б – 7 -9%, лен – 9 - 11%, шерсть – 12 -14%) 2. Не электризуются, не накапливают !} electric charge 3. Air and vapor permeable
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-11.jpg" alt="> Identification of textile products Plan 1. Identification"> Идентификация текстильных изделий План 1. Идентификация волокнистого состава текстильных изделий 2. Идентификация тканей по виду пряжи 3. Идентификация линейной плотности нитей, линейных размеров и массы ткани 4. Идентификация тканей по виду переплетения 5. Идентификация ткани по ассортиментным признакам!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-12.jpg" alt="> Textile products are most often subject to falsification by: Replacing natural raw materials with artificial or"> Наиболее часто фальсификации подлежит текстильные изделия путем: Замены натурального сырья искусственным или синтетическим (более дорогого сырья более дешевым): Хлопок – вискоза; тактель (ПА) Шерсть – нитрон (ПАН) Шерсть – лавсан (ПЭФ) Шелк – полиэстер (ПЭФ)!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-13.jpg" alt=">Identification by combustion reaction: 1. Cotton, linen, viscose: easy ignition, fast burning, odor"> Идентификация по реакции горения: 1. Хлопок, лен, вискоза: легкое воспламенение, быстрое горение, запах жженой бумаги, серый растирающийся в руке пепел!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-14.jpg" alt=">Consequences of falsification: 1. Causes allergic reactions 2. Products are electrified 3 . Rapid physical aging (appearance"> Последствия фальсификации: 1. Вызывает аллергические реакции 2. Электризуются изделия 3. Быстрое физическое старение (появление пиллинга, блеска и тд.)!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-15.jpg" alt=">The purpose of creating artificial and synthetic fibers is to create substitutes for natural raw materials">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-16.jpg" alt="> Identification of raw materials used for fabric production: 1. Physical methods(reaction"> Identification of raw materials used for fabric production: 1. Physical methods (combustion reaction) 2. Chemical methods(action by reagents) 3. Organoleptic (by carcass)
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-17.jpg" alt=">Viscose is a product of wood processing of cellulose (spruce) or short cotton fibers . Chemical composition"> Вискоза – продукт переработки древесиной целлюлозы (ели) или коротких хлопковых волокон. Химический состав (С 6 Н 10 О 5). Степень полимеризации – 300 -600!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-18.jpg" alt=">Identification of wool and silk fibers by combustion reaction: 1. When burning allocate"> Идентификация шерстяных и шелковых волокон по реакции горения: 1. При горении выделяют запах жженого рога 2. Вне пламени горение прекращается 3. Образуется остаток, растирающийся в руках!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-19.jpg" alt=">Identification of artificial fibers by combustion reaction: 1. Viscose is similar to cotton and flax 2."> Идентификация искусственных волокон по реакции горения: 1. Вискоза аналогична хлопку и льну 2. Ацетатный шелк горит, вызывая запах уксусной кислоты, на конце волокна спекаются в шарики!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-20.jpg" alt=">Identification of synthetic fibers by combustion reaction: 1. Nitron fiber (PAN ) - smoky flame,"> Идентификация синтетических волокон по реакции горения: 1. Нитроновое волокно (ПАН) – коптящее пламя, черный остаток неправильной формы 2. Капроновое волокна (ПА) – наличие белого дыма. Горит вспышками. Остаток янтарного цвета, вытягивается в нити Реакция горения не позволяет достоверно определить волокнистый состав, так как используются отдушки, смеси волокон!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-21.jpg" alt=">Identification of fibers using a reagent - zinc chloride: 1. Cotton - blue color; 2."> Идентификация волокон с помощью реактива – хлорцинкйода: 1. Хлопок – синий цвет; 2. Лен – !} purple; 3. Wool, silk – yellow; 4. Viscose – red-violet color
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-22.jpg" alt=">Recognition of mixed fibers: 1. Organoleptically determine the main raw material composition 2. Combustion reaction"> Распознавание волокон в смешенном виде: 1. Органолептически определить основной сырьевой состав 2. Реакцией горения определяют наличие неоднородных волокон 3. Пример: Если горение волокон сопровождается запахом жженого пера, коптящим пламенем, после вынесения из пламени образуется твердый остаток - Смесь содержит шерсть и ПАН волокна!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-23.jpg" alt=">Isolation of fibers from a mixture: 1. Exposure of fabric to concentrated sulfuric or hydrochloric acid"> Выделение волокон из смеси: 1. Воздействие на ткань концентрированной серной или соляной кислотой – ПАН устойчивы к действию кислот 2. Ацетатные волокна растворяются в ацетоне 3. Триацетатные волокна растворяются в !} acetic acid 4. . Lavsan dissolves in 90% phenol solution
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-24.jpg" alt="> Behavior of fibers when exposed to chemical reagents: Cotton 1. Destroyed under"> Поведение волокон при воздействии химических реактивов: Хлопок 1. Разрушается под действием растворов неорганических кислот 2. Устойчив к действию щелочей 3. Окрашивается в синий цвет под воздействием хлорцинкйода!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-25.jpg" alt="> Wool: 1. 1. Dissolves in Na solution. OH (10 -15%)"> Шерсть: 1. 1. Растворяется в р-ре Na. OH (10 -15%) 1. 2 Разрушается в азотной кислоте 1. 3 Устойчива к действию серной и соляной к-т 1. 4 Хлорцинкйодом окрашивается в желтый цвет!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-26.jpg" alt="> Polyamide (nylon, PA) 1. 1 Dissolves in formic and acetic acid 1."> Полиамидное (капроновое, ПА) 1. 1 Растворяется в муравьиной и уксусной кислоте 1. 2 Окрашивается хлорцинкйодом в желтый цвет Лавсановое (полиэфирное, ПЭФ, полиэстер) 1. 1 Растворяется в 3 -5% р-ре Na. OH при кипячении 1. 2 Растворяется при нагревании в 90% р-ре фенола 1. 3 Устойчиво к действию концентрированного р -ра неорганических кислот!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-27.jpg" alt="> Nitronic PAN 1. 1 In 3 -5% solution Na.OH"> Нитроновое ПАН 1. 1 В 3 -5 % р-ре Na. OH при кипячении окрашивается в !} brick color 1. 2 Dissolves when boiled in 10 -15% Na solution. OH 1. 3 Resistant to concentrated solution of inorganic acids (except nitric acid)
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-28.jpg" alt="> Identification of fabrics by crease resistance: Crease resistance is a property of a fabric that provides elastic restoration"> Идентификация тканей по несминаемости: Несминаемость – свойство ткани, обеспечивающее упругоэластическое восстановление до первоначальной формы после прекращения действия усилий, вызывающих изгиб!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-29.jpg" alt="> 2. Identification of fabrics by type of yarn Not only"> 2. Идентификация тканей по виду пряжи Фальсификации подвергается не только волокнистый состав, но и вид пряжи: используется коротковолокнистые материалы, отходы текстильного производства (угары)!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-30.jpg" alt=">The thread is obtained by the following spinning methods: 1. Combed (smoother, smooth,"> Нить получают следующими способами прядения: 1. Гребенным (более ровная, гладкая, прочная) Используются длинно- и средневолокнистые (более дорогие) волокна 2. Кардным 3. Аппаратным (из коротких волокон, отходов) 4. Сухим и мокрым способом прядения (лен) При определенном способе прядения используется сырье определенной градации качества В ТУ на ткань указывается вид используемой пряжи!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-31.jpg" alt=">Depending on the structure, the yarn is produced in Simple"> В зависимости от структуры, пряжу вырабатывают Простую Фасонную Текстурированную Простая пряжа – одинаковая по всей длине Фасонная пряжа – пряжа с местными эффектами, получаемыми в процессе прядения Текстурированная пряжа – пряжа, полученная из разноусадочных волокон Пример: 50% шерсти и 50% ПАН!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-32.jpg" alt=">When falsifying the type of yarn used, the thread is subjected to enhanced twisting Using various types of twists V"> При фальсификации вида используемой пряжи нить подвергают усиленной крутке Используя различные виды круток в основе и утке получают креповый эффект или ворсовый застил Высокообъемные нити отличаются растяжимостью, большой извитостью, мягкостью и высокой упругостью. Различают текстурированные нити высокой (100% и более), повышенной (до 100%) и обычной (до 30%) растяжимости.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-33.jpg" alt="> High-tensile threads include elastic, acon and comelan. Elastic is used"> К высокорастяжимым нитям относятся эластик, акон и комэлан. Эластик используется для выработки чулочно-носочных изделий, трикотажных полотен, тканей для купальников, спортивной одежды. Более широкому использованию препятствует его значительная усадка (до 70%). Акон состоит из капроновой и ацетатной нитей, скрученных в два приема нить комэлан – из капроновой и комплексной ацетатной нитей. Эти нити используются так же, как и эластик.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-34.jpg" alt=">High tensile threads include maron, melan, corrugated and reelon. Maron (from"> К нитям повышенной растяжимости относятся мэрон, мэлан, гофрон и рилон. Мэрон (из капроновых комплексных нитей) и мэлан (из лавсановых комплексных нитей) получают способом ложной крутки, как и эластик, с дополнительной обработкой во второй термокамере. Указанные нити широко используются при выработке разнообразных трикотажных полотен и костюмно- плательных тканей. Изделия из этих нитей отличаются хорошей формоустойчивостью и продолжительным сроком службы.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-35.jpg" alt=">Corrugation is produced from polyamide complex yarns by corrugating them in a heat chamber, where wherein"> Гофрон получают из полиамидных комплексных нитей путем гофрирования их в термокамере, где при этом образуются зафиксированные зигзагообразные извитки. Рилон получают из полиамидных комплексных нитей путем их протягивания по кромке горячего ножа. Используют рилон так же, как мэрон и мэлан.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-36.jpg" alt=">Aeron is a thread of normal tensile strength. On the surface of the aeron under the influence of a powerful jets"> К нитям обычной растяжимости относится аэрон. На поверхности аэрона под воздействием мощной струи !} compressed air Small loops are formed, which give it fluffiness and volume. Aeron is used in the manufacture of fabrics, knitted fabrics, as well as in the production of artificial fur.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-37.jpg" alt=">High tensile threads include elastic, acon and comelan. Elastic is used for production of hosiery"> К высокорастяжимым нитям относятся эластик, акон и комэлан. Эластик используется для выработки чулочно- носочных изделий, трикотажных полотен, тканей для купальников, спортивной одежды. Недостаток: значительная усадка (до 70%). Акон состоит из ПА и ацетатной нитей, скрученных в два приема; Комэлан – из ПА и комплексной ацетатной нитей.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-38.jpg" alt="> Fancy yarn: Yarn with neps - yarn with spun lumps"> Фасонная пряжа: Пряжа с непсом – пряжа с впряденными комочками волокон другого цвета или вида Переслежистая пряжа – пряжа с чередованием утолщенных и утоненных мест Петлистая пряжа – пряжа с с эффектом в виде петель Эпонж – нить двойного кручения в виде рыхлых утолщений!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-39.jpg" alt="> According to the degree of twist, the yarn is divided: 1. Flat twist -"> По степени крутки, пряжа подразделяется: 1. Пологой крутки – вискозные, ацетатные, триацетатные нити 100 -300 круток на 1 м, используются для изготовления гладких тканей 2. Муслиновой крутки – 900 -1500 крм – применяют для малоплотных упругих тканей 3. Креповой крутки- 1500 -200 крм – для тканей с шероховатой поверхностью, большой растяжимостью.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-40.jpg" alt=">3. Identification of fabrics by linear thread density, linear dimensions and weight">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-41.jpg" alt="> Fibers used in textile production must have a certain thickness (fineness) and length,"> Волокна используемые в текстильном производстве, должны иметь определенную толщину (тонину) и длину, а также обладать определенными физико- механическими свойствами. § Толщина волокон (нитей) - Т - характеризуется массой (весом) единицы их длины и обозначается через текс (текс - начальная часть слова «текстильный»): § Т -= м / L г/км, или текс где м - масса волокна в г, a L -его длина в км Если. в качестве весовых единиц используется миллиграмм, то толщина волокна выражается в миллитексах (мтекс), а если в килограммах, то в килотексах (ктекс). Чем ниже текс, тем тоньше волокна!!! § Метрическим номером волокна называется отношение длины волокна L в мм, м, км к его весу G в мг, г, кг. § N = L /G(мм/мг; м/г; км/кг) Чем выше номер, тем тоньше волокно!!! § Между тексом Т и метрическим номером N имеется следующая зависимость: § Т N=1000, или Т= 1000 / N § Гигроскопичность волокон (нитей) (Н, %) § Извитость волокон (И)!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-42.jpg" alt=">Linear density (thickness) – mass per unit length ( g/km) –"> Линейная плотность (толщина) – масса, приходящаяся на единицу длины (г/км) – ТЕКС (Т) Линейная плотность ткани определяется: Из ткани вырезаются пробы 100 х100 мм Из двух проб берут по 25 основных и уточных нитей Из 3 пробы берут 25 уточных нитей Пучки по 50 основных и уточных нитей взвешивают Линейная плотность определяется по формуле Т=m/L*1000=m/5*1000!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-43.jpg" alt=">Calico should be produced: 18, 5 and 20 tex based on 15 , 4 and 20"> Ситцы должны вырабатываться: 18, 5 и 20 текс по основе 15, 4 и 20 текс по утку Бязи: 25 текс по основе; 29 текс по утку Уплотненные 25 по основе и утку 29 текс по основе и утку Огрубленные 33, 3 тек по основе и 36 текс по утку!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-44.jpg" alt=">Fabric density - number of warp and weft threads per 100 mm length or width"> Плотность ткани – кол-во основных и уточных нитей на 100 мм длины или ширины Уменьшение плотность ткани ведёт к снижение себестоимости и получение прибыли!!!!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-45.jpg" alt=">The density of the fabric is determined: 1. Determining the number of warp and weft threads on section 20 mm"> Плотность ткани определяется: 1. Определение количества нитей основы и утка на участке 20 мм при помощи препаровальной иглы 2. Полученный результат умножается на 5 Плотность каждого вида ткани нормируется стандартом!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-46.jpg" alt=">The linear dimensions of the fabric (length and width) are determined by 3 dimensions: in the middle and"> Линейные размеры ткани (длину и ширину) определяют по з измерениям: по середине и на расстоянии 5 см от края с каждой стороны Допустимы следующие отклонения: 1. Ширина до 70 см - (+-) 1 см 2. Ширина от 100 до 150 см – (+-) 2 см!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-47.jpg" alt="> Surface density of fabric (mass 1 m 2) - ratio of sample mass fabrics to"> Поверхностная плотность ткани (масса 1 м 2) – отношение массы образца ткани к его площади – определяют по формуле: M = m/l 0*b 0, где b 0 – средняя ширина образца, см!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-48.jpg" alt=">Area density is standardized: Calico 92 -103 Calico 138"> Поверхностная плотность нормируется: Ситцы 92 -103 Бязи 138 -150 Санины 107 -130 поплин 105 -114!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-49.jpg" alt=">A decrease in surface density affects the strength properties of the fabric, which are determined using explosive"> Уменьшение поверхностной плотности влияет на прочностные свойства ткани, которые определяются с помощью разрывной машины и прибора ДИТ-М!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-50.jpg" alt=">Types of weave and their falsification">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-51.jpg" alt="> The interlacing of threads in fabric is the order of mutual overlap of warp threads with weft threads."> Переплетением нитей в ткани называется порядок взаимного перекрытия основных нитей уточными. Перекрытия чередуются в определенной последовательности в каждом ряду основы и в каждом ряду утка, образуя на поверхности ткани один и тот же повторяющийся рисунок, который называется раппортом и обозначается буквой R. При выработке тканей используют четыре класса переплетений: 1. простые (главные), 2. мелкоузорчатые, 3. сложные 4. крупноузорчатые!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-52.jpg" alt=">Features of simple weaves are as follows: § the warp report is always equal"> Особенности простых переплетений состоят в следующем: § paппорт по основе всегда равен раппорту по утку: § в пределах paппорта каждая основная нить переплетается с уточной только один раз.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-53.jpg" alt=">Simple (main) weaves include plain, twill and satin ( satin).">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-54.jpg" alt=">Plain weave: Fabrics have a smooth matte surface; identical"> Полотняное переплетение: Ткани имеют ровную матовую поверхность; одинаковый внешний вид лицевой и изнаночной сторон; Каждая нить основы переплетает каждую нить утка Полотняным переплетением вырабатывается большое количество бельевых, плательных и одежных тканей. При большой разнице в линейной плотности основной и уточной пряжи в ткани полотняного переплетения образуются продольные или поперечные рубчики. При использовании нитей повышенной крутки на ткани образуется креповый эффект.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-55.jpg" alt=">Twill weave is characterized by the presence of a diagonal scar on the surface of the fabric. On the front surface fabrics"> Саржевое переплетение характеризуется наличием на поверхности ткани диагоналевого рубчика. На лицевой поверхности ткани рубчик направлен снизу вверх слева направо!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-56.jpg" alt=">Twill weave produces fabrics 1. cotton dress and lining 2. linen (For"> Саржевым переплетением вырабатывают ткани 1. хлопчатобумажные плательные и подкладочные 2. льняные (для обивки матрацев) 3. шелковые подкладочные!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-57.jpg" alt=">Satin weave is characterized by elongated overlaps placed evenly throughout rapport. !If on"> Атласное (сатиновое) переплетение характеризуется удлиненными перекрытиями, размещенными равномерно по всему раппорту. !Если на лицевой стороне ткани выступают длинные основные перекрытия, переплетение называется атласным. Ткани атласного и сатинового переплетений обычно имеют !} various densities on warp and weft. The system of threads that extends to the surface of the fabric has a high density.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-58.jpg" alt=">Satin weave fabrics are distinguished by: 1. Smoothness of the surface, shine, increased abrasion resistance,"> Ткани атласных (сатиновых) переплетений отличаются: 1. Гладкостью поверхности, блеском, повышенной стойкостью к истиранию, высокой прочностью. Для атласного переплетения используют: химические комплексные нити и натуральный шелк.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-59.jpg" alt=">Finely patterned weaves include: 1) derivatives of simple weaves (plain , twill and satin)"> К мелкоузорчатым переплетениям относятся: 1) производные от простых переплетений (полотняного, саржевого и атласного) 2) комбинированные. 1. Это наиболее многочисленный класс ткацких переплетений. 2. Такие переплетения создают на тканях несложные рисунки в виде рубчиков, полос, «елочек» , квадратиков, ромбов и т. д. Размеры рисунков обычно не превышают 1 см и зависят от раппорта по основе (до 24 нитей) и толщины нитей основы и утка. 3. В отличие от простых переплетений в мелкоузорчатых раппорты по основе и по утку могут быть различными.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-60.jpg" alt="> Derivative weaves are obtained by increasing the number of warp and weft threads K"> Производные переплетения получают путем увеличения количества основных и уточных нитей К производным полотняного переплетения относятся переплетения репс и рогожка К производным саржевого переплетения относятся усиленная, сложная и ломаная саржа!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-61.jpg" alt=">Combined weaves include weaves formed from a combination of different weaves. Such weaves can"> К комбинированным переплетениям относятся переплетения, образуемые из комбинации различных переплетений. Такие переплетения могут состоять из полотняного и репсового, саржевого и рогожки, атласного и т. д. Комбинированным переплетением вырабатывают сорочечные, костюмные, полотенечные и другие ткани.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-63.jpg" alt=">Complex weaves - weaves obtained from several warp and weft threads, used for"> Сложные переплетения –переплетения, полученные из нескольких основных и уточных нитей, используемых для разрезного ворса или объединяющих две самостоятельные ткани. Такие ткани вырабатывают из нескольких (трех и более) систем основных и уточных нитей. Дополнительные системы нитей при выработке этих тканей вводятся для увеличения толщины, плотности улучшения теплозащитных свойств. Сложные крупноузорчатые переплетения образуются из трех и более систем нитей и могут иметь разнообразные по фактуре узоры: ворсовые, петельные, рельефные, плоские многоцветные и др. Сложными крупноузорчатыми переплетениями вырабатываются ковры, гобелены, пикейные покрывала, мебельно-декоративные ткани, разнообразный ассортимент тканей для одежды. Наиболее распространены: двойные, двухлицевые, двухслойные, ворсовые, перевивочные переплетения.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-64.jpg" alt=">Two-layer weaves are produced from two systems of warp threads and two systems of weft threads. Advantages:"> Двухслойные переплетения вырабатываются из двух систем основных и двух систем уточных нитей. Достоинства: толстые ткани, обладающие хорошими теплозащитными свойствами. Применяются при выработке пальтовых тканей, драпов и т. п.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-65.jpg" alt="> Pile weaves are obtained from three systems of threads: one - pile and two –"> Ворсовые переплетения получают из трех систем нитей: одна – ворсовая и две – основа и уток Различают осново- или уточно-ворсовые ткани Вырабатывают: бархат, полубархат, велюр, плюш, вельветы и искусственный мех. Петельный ворс используют для выработки полотенец, простынь и халатов!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-66.jpg" alt=">Large-patterned weaves are produced on a Jacquard machine. Difference: large patterns of various shapes on the fabric."> Крупноузорчатые переплетения вырабатывают на машине Жаккарда. Отличие: крупные узоры разнообразных форм на ткане. Жаккардовые переплетения используют при выработке костюмно-платьевых тканей, мебельно-декоративных тканей, ковров, гобеленов, пикейные покрывала и др. Сложные крупноузорчатые переплетения образуются из трех и более систем нитей и могут иметь разнообразные по фактуре узоры: ворсовые, петельные, рельефные, плоские многоцветные и др.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-67.jpg" alt=">5. Identification of fabric by assortment characteristics">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-68.jpg" alt=">Cintz - produced in plain weave from carded yarn of medium linear density (18 tex base,"> Ситцы - вырабатывают полотняным переплетением из кардной пряжи средней линейной плотности (18 текс основа, 15 текс уток), поверхностная плотность в среднем 100 г/м 2, ширина 65 -95 см. Ситцы чаще набивные. Применяются для легкого платья, белья. Бязи - вырабатывают полотняным переплетением из кардной пряжи. Они плотнее и тяжелее ситца. Поверхностная плотность в среднем 140 г/м 2, ширина 60 -100 см. Выпускают их гладкоокрашенными и набивными. Применяются для легкого платья, белья, прокладки.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-69.jpg" alt=">Satins - produced with a satin weave from combed carded yarn with a surface density of 100 -140"> Сатины - вырабатывают сатиновым переплетением из гребенной кардной пряжи с поверхностной плотностью 100 -140 г/м 2. Выпускают гладкоокрашенными, набивными и тисненными. Сатины мерсеризуют с целью придания устойчивого блеска. Применяют для легкого платья, белья, подкладки. Поплин - рубчиковая ткань полотняного переплетения из кардной пряжи. Поперечный рубчик образуется из- за более толстого утка или большей плотности по утку. Мерсеризация придает блеск и шелковистость ткани. Применяют для пошива платьев, блузок, сорочек.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-70.jpg" alt=">Volta is a thin translucent fabric made of combed plain weave yarn. Surface density 60 g/m"> Вольта - тонкая полупрозрачная ткань из гребенной пряжи полотняного переплетения. Поверхностная плотность 60 г/м 2, ширина 90 см, относительная плотность по основе 45%. Обычно с набивным рисунком. Применяется для платьев, блузок, ночных сорочек. Батист - тонкая прозрачная гребенная ткань полотняного переплетения, несколько плотнее вольты. Поверхностная плотность 71 г/м 2, ширина 70 -90 см. Обычно с набивным бело-земельным рисунком. Применяется для платьев, блузок, ночных сорочек.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-71.jpg" alt=">Flannel is a fabric of plain and twill weave with double-sided sparse brushing. Surface density"> Фланель - ткань полотняного и саржевого переплетения с двусторонним редким начесом. Поверхностная плотность до 250 г/м 2, ширина 90 см. Фланель выпускают гладкоокрашенной или набивной. Используют для пошива зимнего детского платья, домашних халатов, пижам, сорочек. Бумазея - отличается от фланели тем, что вырабатывается саржевым переплетением с односторонним редким начесом с лицевой или изнаночной стороны. Используют бумазею так же, как и фланель.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-72.jpg" alt=">Flare is the thickest and heaviest double-face weave fabric with double-sided thick brushing .Release"> Байка - самая толстая и тяжелая ткань двулицевого переплетения с двусторонним густым начесом. Выпускают гладкоокрашенной, ширина до 100 см. Применяют для верхней одежды, пледов, утеплителя в обувь.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-73.jpg" alt=">Velvet weft-pile fabric with a surface density of 340 g/m 2 .The fabric is soft, with good heat protection"> Бархат уточно-ворсовая ткань с поверхностной плотностью 340 г/м 2. Ткань мягкая, с хорошими теплозащитными свойствами. Применяют для зимнего платья. Очень трудная в обработке ткань. Вельвет - рубчик и вельвет-корд имеют ворс в виде рубчиков разных по ширине.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-74.jpg" alt=">Crepe - produced by crepe weave from threads of high twist, can be pure wool and half-woolen,"> Креп - вырабатывается креповым переплетением из нитей повышенной крутки, может быть чистошерстяной и полушерстяной, обычно гладкокрашеный по расцветке. Хорошо драпируется, но сложен в обработке из-за большой осыпаемости и растяжимости. Ширина 140 см. Кашемир - ткань саржевого переплетения, применяется для платьев, шалей (Павлово- Посадские платки). Ширина 140 см.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-75.jpg" alt="> Tartan is a pure wool or wool blend fabric of plain or twill weave in a checkered pattern ( rarely finely patterned)."> Шотландка - чистошерстяная или полушерстяная ткань полотняного или саржевого переплетения в клетку (редко мелкоузорчатая). Ширина 140 см. Шевиоты - недорогие полушерстяные ткани саржевого переплетения с добавлением хлопчатобумажной пряжи в основе, ширина 142 и 152 см.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-76.jpg" alt=">Crepe chiffon is the thinnest, lightest transparent crepe fabric of plain weave .Produced plain-painted and"> Креп-шифон - наиболее тонкая, легкая прозрачная креповая ткань полотняного переплетения. Выпускается гладкоокрашенными и набивными. Креп-жоржет - тонкая полупрозрачная креповая ткань полотняного переплетения. Отличается повышенной жесткостью, упругостью. Крепдешин - полукреповая ткань полотняного переплетения с относительной плотностью. Ткань непрозрачная, с умеренным блеском и мелкозернистой поверхностью.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/38313627_66869575.pdf-img/38313627_66869575.pdf-77.jpg" alt=">Velvet - warp weave fabric, surface density 63 g/m 2 , produced plain-dyed, printed."> Бархат - ткань основоворсового переплетения, поверхностная плотность 63 г/м 2, выпускают гладкокрашенной, набивной. Промышленность выпускает вытравной бархат (основа из натурального шелка, ворс из искусственных нитей вытравляется по трафарету кислотным составом).!}
05.19.01 “Materials science of textile and light industry” in technical sciences
MINIMUM PROGRAM
candidate exam in specialty
05.19.01 “Materials science of textile and light industry”
in technical sciences
Introduction
This program is based on the following disciplines: materials science for light industry; textile materials science.
The program was developed by the expert council of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education Russian Federation in chemistry (chemical technology) with the participation of Moscow State Textile University named after A.N. Kosygin and Moskovsky state university design and technology.
1. Materials science for light industry
Materials science is the science of the structure and properties of materials. The relationship between materials science and physics, chemistry, mathematics, and the technology of leather, fur, footwear and clothing products. The importance of materials science in improving the quality and competitiveness of these products. Main directions of development of materials science in light industry.
Polymer substances. Fiber-forming, film-forming and adhesive polymer substances: cellulose, proteins (keratin, fibroin, collagen), polyamides, polyethylene terephthalates, polyolefins, polyacrylonitriles, polyimides, polyurethanes, polyvinyl alcohol etc., features of their structure and basic properties. Amorphous and crystalline state of polymers. Molecular and supramolecular structures of synthetic polymers, hierarchical structures in natural polymers. Oriented state of polymers.
Structure of materials. Textile materials. Textile fibers, their classification. Structure, composition and properties of the main types of fibers; plant origin, animal origin, artificial (from natural polymers), synthetic (from synthetic polymers), from inorganic compounds. Modified textile fibers, features of their structure and properties. Textile threads, main types and varieties, features of their structure and properties. Fabrics, knitted and non-woven fabrics; methods of their preparation and structure. Characteristics of the structure of textile materials and methods for their determination. Main types of textile materials for clothing, shoes and their characteristics.
Leather and fur materials. Methods for obtaining leather and fur. Tanning theories. Composition and structure of skin and fur, main structural characteristics and methods for their determination. Types of leather and fur for clothing, shoes and their characteristics. Artificial and synthetic leathers and furs, methods of their production and structure. The main types of artificial and synthetic leather and fur, their characteristics. Biopolymer materials. Materials obtained with the participation of enzymatic systems.
Rubbers, polymer compositions, plastic compounds, cardboards used in light industry, methods of their production and composition. Basic characteristics of the structure of these materials and methods for their determination.
Fastening materials: sewing threads and adhesive materials. Types of sewing threads, methods of obtaining them, structural features. Basic characteristics of the structure of threads and methods for their determination. Adhesive materials. Modern theories gluing. Methods of production, composition and structure of adhesive materials used in clothing and shoe production. Main types of adhesive materials and their characteristics.
Geometric properties and density of materials.
Length, thickness, width of materials, area of skins and fur, methods for determining these characteristics.
Mass of the material, linear and surface density of the material, methods for determining these characteristics.
Density, average density, true density of materials.
Mechanical properties of materials.
Classification of characteristics of mechanical properties. Theories of strength and fracture solids. Kinetic theory of strength.
Half-cycle tensile and non-fracture characteristics obtained by tensile materials, instruments and methods for their determination. Calculation methods for determining the forces at break of materials. Biaxial tension. Tear strength. Anisotropy of elongations and forces when stretching materials in different directions.
Single-cycle tensile properties. Components of total deformation. Creep and relaxation phenomena in materials, methods for determining relaxation spectra. Model methods for studying relaxation phenomena in materials. High-cycle tensile characteristics, wear and tear of materials, instruments and methods for determining fatigue characteristics.
Half-cycle and single-cycle characteristics obtained by bending materials, methods and instruments for their determination. High-cycle characteristics obtained by bending materials. Stresses and deformations arising from compressive forces. Dependence of material thickness on external pressure. Multiple compression of materials.
Friction of materials, modern ideas about the nature of friction.
Factors determining friction of materials. Friction test methods for various materials. Sliding and fraying of threads in fabrics.
Physical properties of materials.
Sorption properties of materials. Forms of connection between moisture and materials. Kinetics of sorption of water vapor by materials. Sorption hysteresis. Thermal effects and swelling of materials during moisture sorption. Basic characteristics of the hygroscopic properties of materials, instruments and methods for their determination.
Permeability of materials. Air permeability, vapor permeability, water permeability, methods and instruments for determining these characteristics. Permeability of radioactive, ultraviolet, infrared rays through materials. The influence of the composition, structure and properties of materials on their permeability.
Thermal properties of materials. Basic characteristics of the thermal properties of materials, instruments and methods for their determination. The influence of structure parameters and other factors on the thermal properties of materials. The influence of high and low temperatures on materials.
Heat resistance, heat resistance, fire resistance of materials.
Optical properties. Basic characteristics of optical properties, instruments and methods for their determination. The influence of technological and operational factors on the optical properties of materials.
Electrical properties of materials. Causes and factors of electrification and electrical conductivity of materials. Basic characteristics of electrification and electrical conductivity of materials, instruments and methods for their determination.
Acoustic properties of materials.
Changes in the structure and properties of materials during processing and operation. Wear resistance of materials.
Changes in the size of materials under the influence of moisture and heat.
Shrinkage and attraction of materials during locking and wet-heat treatment. Instruments and methods for determining the shrinkage of materials.
Formability of materials. The main factors and reasons for the formation and fixation of materials. Methods and instruments for determining the moldability of materials.
Wear resistance of materials. Basic wear criteria. Causes of wear. Abrasion, stages of wear and the mechanism of abrasion and its determining factors. Pilling, the reasons for its formation. Methods and instruments for determining the resistance of materials to abrasion.
Physico-chemical wear factors. The impact of light, weather conditions, washing and other factors on materials. Combined wear factors. Experienced wear. Laboratory wear modeling.
Reliability of materials, main reliability characteristics. Assessment and prediction of material reliability characteristics.
Non-destructive methods testing of materials and their application.
Quality and certification of materials.
Quality of materials. Sampling and selection of materials. Summary characteristics of test results, confidence limits. Statistical models. Probabilistic quality assessment. Methods of statistical control and quality measurement, quality levels. Nomenclature of quality indicators for various groups of materials.
Expert method of quality assessment. Quality management systems, domestic and international standards for quality management. Certification. Certification system and mechanism. Basic conditions of certification. Mandatory and voluntary certification. Certification of materials and products in light industry.
2. Materials science of textile industry
Textile materials science and its development.
Classification of textile materials. The main types of natural and chemical fibers, threads and products made from them. Their areas rational use. Fibers, threads and products for technical and special purposes. Their classification, structural features and properties. Modern standard terminology. Economics and importance for various industries of the main types of textile materials. Prospects for their production.
The place of textile materials science among other technical sciences, its connection with fundamental sciences and textile technology.
Development of textile materials science and challenges facing it.
The main scientific schools of textile materials science, the directions they carried out scientific works. Outstanding domestic and foreign scientists in the field of textile materials science, their works. The role of the Department of Textile Materials Science at MSTU in the development of domestic textile materials science.
Textile fibers, their composition and structure.
Classification of textile fibers, polymer substances that make up the fibers. Features of their structure.
Development of scientific views on the structure of polymer substances that make up fibers. Modern views about this question.
Supramolecular structures of fiber-forming polymers.
The main polymers that make up the fibers: cellulose, keratin, fibroin, polyamides, polyesters, polyolefins, polyvinyl chlorides, polyacrylonitriles, polyurethanes. New types of polymers used for high-modulus, heat- and heat-resistant fibers and threads. Their characteristics. Modified chemical fibers: mtilon, polynose, trilobal, shelon, siblon and others. Features of their structure and properties.
