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COURSE WORK

Analysis of modern research on the Pacific Ocean

Introduction

Chapter 1. Historical and geographical overview of studies of the Pacific Ocean in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries.

1.1 Curriculum Vitae

1.2 Results of the work of research vessels

Chapter 2. Progress of exploration of the Pacific Ocean

2.1 Stages: background, level of technology, geography of research and chronology of research

2.2 Key directions and goals of research in the Pacific Ocean regions various states

2.3 Regional division and zoning of the Pacific Ocean

Chapter 3. Achievements of research and international projects 1990-2010

3.1 International project "Argo"

3.2 Satellite research

3.3 Other studies

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

It is necessary to reveal all aspects of the study of the Pacific Ocean in order to develop its riches - enormous, but not limitless. The use of energy, mineral and biological resources is associated with solving environmental problems, weather control and maritime transport.

For Belarus, research in the Pacific Ocean is of practical importance. First of all, this is the organization of fishing in the water area, the development trade relations and recreation. The creation of a Belarusian maritime merchant fleet is one of the areas of implementation of the Program for the Development of Inland Water and Maritime Transport for 2011-2015. Up to 20 million tons of Belarusian export cargoes are transported annually by sea: mineral fertilizers, petroleum products, metal, wheeled vehicles, tires, sugar, to countries Latin America and Asia. Also important are studies of El Niño and La Niña, the consequences of which indirectly affect the agroclimatic conditions of Belarus.

The purpose of the course work was to analyze modern research in the Pacific Ocean. The following tasks were set:

Characterize the personal contribution of modern scientists to the research of the Pacific Ocean;

Analyze the research activities of three round-the-world expeditions and compare the directions of Soviet and foreign research;

Present the history of research and systematize data on research areas.

The preparation of the course work included several stages. At the first stage, the goals and objectives of the course research were formulated and analytical methods for performing the work were selected. The second stage is the collection of factual data and processing of the source database. Scientific publications, maps, monographs, electronic and network resources were studied. The third stage is data processing: the materials were systematized by time and areas of research, and individual details were clarified. Further, data analysis allowed us to create a clear structure of work; processing of graphic material included searching for photographs and vectorizing maps. The fourth stage is the interpretation of data and formulation of conclusions. The results of the work were summed up, the results and prospects for further study of the topic were assessed. The stage also included the design of the course work: layout and writing of the main text components; compiling a list of references, designing a table of contents and title page; schematic modeling of the logical content of the entire work.

Chapter 1. Historical and geographical overview of studies of the Pacific Ocean in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries.

Navigation in the Pacific Ocean began long before the beginning of recorded human history. However, there is evidence that the first European to see the Pacific Ocean was Vasco Balboa; in 1513 the ocean opened before him from the Darien Mountains in Panama. In the history of Pacific Ocean exploration there are such famous names as Ferdinand Magellan, Abel Tasman, Francis Drake, Charles Darwin, Vitus Bering, James Cook, George Vancouver and others.

To the east of New Zealand, G. Menard discovered and described in 1964 a long (1100 km) ridge of volcanoes 4.2-4.5 km high. Research he conducted in 1964 north of Hawaii changed old views on the bottom topography of this part of the Pacific Ocean. Instead of a single ridge, he identified several isolated peaks and a series of short chains. G. Menard called the entire structure the Mountains of Musicians.

Since 1949, the Soviet expedition ship Vityaz began operating in the Pacific Ocean. Expeditions on the Vityaz studied and described three main types of ocean floor uplifts: arched uplifts, which mainly include structures that come to the surface in the form of the Marshall Islands, Line Islands, Tuamotu Islands and a number of others; blocky ridges and massifs (Shatsky Upland, Nazca Ridge); marginal ramparts, confined mainly to external parties a number of deep-sea trenches - Aleutian, Kuril-Kamchatka, Philippine.

In addition to the Vityaz, Soviet research vessels worked in the Pacific Ocean: the Ob in 1957-1958, surveyed the eastern edge of the East Pacific Rise to the latitude of the island. Easter; "Dmitry Mendeleev" in 1974-1975. conducted a detailed study of the western edge of the same underwater structure.

In 1986, the R/V Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, carrying the Pysis GOA, made a special voyage to study volcanically active areas of the northeastern Pacific Ocean.

The study of the islands of Oceania remained a relevant area of research. In the early 1990s, the Rajaampat group of islands was first discovered, which has now become an important recreational area.

A team of Australian scientists in 2006 explored a trench in the Tasmanian fault zone, in which scientists were able to find species that had not been studied modern science- soft corals.

In May 2009, using the Jenson ROV, oceanographers were able to discover and record the first video and photographs of the world's deepest underwater volcano spewing molten lava onto the ocean floor.

1.1 Curriculum vitae

Thor Heyerdahl

Pioneer researchers play an important role in exploring new, undiscovered areas of the Earth. Their personality attracts attention. They pave the way that shapes the cutting edge of science. Some of them are worth mentioning separately.

Thor Heyerdahl (October 6, 1914, Larvik, Norway - April 18, 2002, Alassio, Italy) - famous Norwegian traveler and scientist-anthropologist.

In 1946, he put forward a theory according to which Polynesia was settled by settlers from South America, who lived in pre-Incan times in Peru. Before the expedition, T. Heyerdahl and five other travelers - Knut Haugland, Bengt Danielsson, Eric Hesselberg, Torstein Robue and Hermann Watzinger - arrived in Peru, where they built a pae-pae raft from balsa wood and other natural materials, which they called "Kon-Tiki" " On August 7, 1947, after 101 days of navigation, the Kon-Tiki, having covered 4,300 nautical miles (8,000 km) in the Pacific Ocean, washed onto the reefs of the Raroia Atoll of the Tuamotu Islands.

Fig 1.1 Thor Heyerdahl.

Rice. 1.2 Thor Heyerdahl and Ra-II.

Rice. 1.3 Ocean currents and the Kon-Tiki route [comp. by the author according to 6].

Kon-Tiki demonstrated that a primitive raft, using the Humboldt Current and a favorable wind, could indeed sail across the Pacific Ocean relatively easily and safely. westward: thanks to the keel system and sail.

In 1955-1956 T. Heyerdahl organized the Norwegian archaeological expedition to Easter Island.

His theories rarely received scientific recognition, while T. Heyerdahl himself rejected scientific criticism and focused on publishing his theories in popular literature intended for the broadest masses. T. Heyerdahl was an activist of green politics. He was awarded numerous medals and prizes, and was also awarded eleven honorary degrees from universities in America and Europe.

T. Heyerdahl died at the age of 87 from a brain tumor in the Italian city of Alassio, surrounded by his family. In his homeland, a monument was erected to him during his lifetime, and a museum was opened in his house.

Despite the fact that most of T. Heyerdahl's works caused controversy in scientific circles, he raised public interest in ancient history and the achievements of various cultures and peoples around the world. He also showed that long-distance travel across the ocean was technically possible for Mesolithic man.

Rice. 1.4 Raft of the Tangaroa expedition 2006.

In 2006, the route of the Kon-Tiki was repeated by a crew of 6 people, which included T. Heyerdahl’s grandson Olav Heyerdahl. The expedition was called "Tangaroa" and was organized in honor of T. Heyerdahl with the aim of conducting observations of the state of the environment in the Pacific Ocean.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau

Speaking about the Pacific Ocean, we should mention Jacques-Yves Cousteau (June 11, 1910, Saint-André-de-Cubzac, France - June 25, 1997, Paris, France) - famous French explorer of the World Ocean, photographer, director, inventor , author of many books and films.

Cousteau was born in Saint-André-de-Cubzac, the son of a lawyer, Daniel and Elizabeth Cousteau. In 1930, he enlisted in the Navy as head of an underwater research group. Fascinated by scuba diving, J.-I. Cousteau in 1938 created a group of divers and began research into the physiology of scuba diving. In 1943, he tested the first prototype of a scuba gear, which he developed together with Emile Gagnan. This allowed for long dives. J.-I. Cousteau became the creator of waterproof cameras and lighting fixtures, and also invented the first underwater television system.

Fig 1.5 Jacques-Yves Cousteau.

Rice. 1.6 "Calypso".

In the process of underwater research, J.-I. Cousteau designed diving devices to various sea depths (“Deepstar”, “Denise”), and adapted a movie camera for underwater filming. An important area of research activity of J.-I. Cousteau began to study underwater life at various latitudes of the World Ocean and the relationship between man and marine animals in their natural environment. For this purpose, in November 1951, a multi-year oceanographic expedition was organized on the ship Calypso. In 1957, he began the Konshelf program - extensive underwater research on the continental shelf. The program included the creation of underwater stations and habitable blocks at various depths, as well as experiments during which people lived and worked in the underwater world. Also in 1957, J.-I. Cousteau was appointed director of the Oceanographic Museum in Monaco.

By the beginning of 1967, Calypso was adapted for underwater filming. During long voyages J.-I. Cousteau explored marine life and filmed in the Pacific Ocean. The objects of his study were whales, dolphins, sharks, various fish and other animals of the deep sea and underwater caves of oceanic islands. Expeditions J.-I. The Cousteaus discovered and carefully studied many sunken ships of various centuries and civilizations, and created the scientific field of modern underwater archeology.

In 1973, he founded the non-profit Cousteau Society for marine conservation in Hampton (Virginia, USA). Since 1985, the Calypso vessel has been replaced by the new turbo-sailing vessel Alcyone. In 1997 J.-I. Cousteau died at the age of 87 from a myocardial infarction as a result of a complication of a respiratory disease.

Already from childhood, Jacques-Yves Cousteau was distinguished by high efficiency and the will to achieve his goal. Cousteau was very courageous and knew how to take a punch. This fact is confirmed by the fact that in 1936 he was in a car accident, receiving many broken ribs, displaced vertebrae, a punctured lung, and paralyzed arms...

All research activities of J.-I. Cousteau was closely associated with the struggle to preserve the purity of the ocean environment, its wildlife and the balance of biological systems in the ocean. His slogan became the world-famous phrase: “If you love the sea, you save it.” His work also allowed for the creation of a new type of scientific communication, criticized by some academics at the time. The Cousteau Society and its French partner “Team Cousteau”, founded by J.-I. Cousteau, are still in effect today.

1.2 Results of the work of research vessels

Among the first, we should mention “Vityaz” - a research vessel (RV) of the Institute of Oceanology named after. P. P. Shirshov RAS (Moscow). The ship made 65 scientific voyages, traveled about 1,481,600 km, and completed 7,942 scientific stations. The maximum depth (11022 m) in the Mariana Trench was measured from its side. A school of Soviet oceanology was formed on the Vityaz; scientists from 50 scientific institutes of the USSR and 20 countries of the world worked on expeditions. The guests of “Vityaz” are T. Heyerdahl and J.-I. Cousteau.

In 1939, the cargo-passenger ship Mars was launched in Bremerhaven (Germany). During World War II, Mars became a military transport. In 1945, as a reparation, the ship was transferred to Great Britain, where it was renamed “Empire forth” (“Forward, Empire”), but already in May 1946 it became part of the USSR merchant fleet.

Between 1947-1949 On the initiative of employees of the Institute of Oceanology, the Equator, renamed Admiral Makarov, was converted into a research vessel of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1949 the ship in last time changed its name, becoming “Vityaz” in memory of two Russian corvettes of the 19th century. "Vityaz" -

1) sailing-screw corvette (1862-1895), which completed 2 round-the-world voyages under the command of captain P.N. Nazimov and brought N. Miklouho-Maclay to New Guinea in 1871;

2) a sail-screw corvette (1883-1893), which circumnavigated the world under the command of Captain S.O. Makarova.

The uniqueness of the vessel was ensured by scientific equipment. First of all, this is a deep-sea anchor winch, which made it possible to anchor at depths of up to 11 km. No less unique was the deep-sea trawl winch, with which trawling can be carried out at depths of up to 11 km. The ship had 14 laboratories, a scientific library, and sample storage facilities. The first research of “Vityaz” is a comprehensive study of the Bering, Okhotsk, and Sea of Japan, work under the programs of the International Geophysical Year (IGY).

Geophysical work carried out on the Vityaz made it possible to formulate reasonable hypotheses about the structure earth's crust in general, and subsequently - to develop new ideas about the global evolution of the Earth (New Global Tectonics). As a result of research by the R/V Vityaz of the water column in the physics, chemistry and geology of the ocean. Over 30 years of voyage, the expeditions of the R/V Vityaz collected huge zoological collections, as a result of which more than 1,100 new species of living organisms, previously unknown to science, were described; 171 new genera and subgenera were established, as well as 26 new taxa of the rank of family, order and higher categories, including a new phylum of living organisms Brachiata. The name of this ship, enshrined in the names of one genus (Vitiaziella Rass) and eight species of fish.

Thanks to the research experience of 65 scientific expeditions, a new science was born on the Vityaz and won the right to exist - marine meteorology, the science of atmospheric processes over the ocean, with special measuring equipment, special measurement methods and visual observations; The theory of interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere received in-depth development.

Rice. 1.7 R/V Vityaz during sea trials, 1948.

The second most important ship should be considered the R/V Dmitry Mendeleev. Research vessel of the Institute of Oceanology named after. P.P. Shirshova Russian Academy Science "Dmitry Mendeleev" was built in 1968 and set out on its first scientific voyage in February 1969. Expeditionary voyages continued for 24 years and ended in 1993. A total of 50 voyages were carried out during this period, of which 30 fall on the Pacific Ocean with its seas. Scientific teams have collected enormous material in all areas of oceanological science, which has led to a number of scientific discoveries and theoretical generalizations.

In the Pacific Ocean there are four thematic destinations for voyages:

· Hydrophysical direction (10);

· Geological-geophysical (one geochemical trip) direction (12);

· Hydrobiological direction (5);

· Complex (geographical) direction (1) (see Table 1.1).

Fig. 1.8 R/V "Dmitry Mendeleev" in the Pacific Ocean, 1978.

As can be seen from the table above, the R/V Vityaz and Dmitry Mendeleev conducted a comprehensive study of the waters of the Pacific Ocean. During this research, a number of discoveries were made that allowed people to learn more about the Pacific Ocean - its structure, physical and chemical properties, bottom structure, biological diversity. Also, thanks to these studies, knowledge about the mechanism of tectonic movements in the earth's crust was expanded.

Western European round-the-world expeditions 1950-2010. may take third place in the Pacific exploration picture. If we compare three well-known round-the-world expeditions - the Swedish on the ship "Albatross" (1947-1948), the Danish on the ship "Galatea" (1950-1952) and the British on the ship "Challenger II" (1950-1952) , with the work of the research vessels "Vityaz" and "Dmitry Mendeleev", then one can detect significant differences both in the duration of the expeditions and in the nature of the research performed. First of all, the expeditions took place on ships of small tonnage, they lasted less than two years, and a small number of scientific personnel dealt only with certain problems of physical oceanography.

The first major voyage after the Second World War was made by a Swedish oceanographic expedition on the ship Albatross (displacement 1,450 tons) under the leadership of Hans Petterson. The goal of the researchers was to study the history of the World Ocean. The main objective of the expedition was to study sediment formation at great depths of the Pacific Ocean, establish the nature of the soils, and also measure the radioactivity of their waters and soils. On the Albatross, for the first time, a long soil piston tube of the Kullenberg design was successfully used, which served to select cores of bottom sediments. The expedition conducted several deep-sea trawls in the Pacific Ocean at depths of up to 7600 m. A set of meteorological and oceanographic observations was also carried out in tropical and equatorial latitudes. In the Panama Canal, the expedition found that, compared to the Atlantic, loose sediments in the Pacific Ocean are significantly younger, and often alternate with layers of volcanic lava.

Fig. 1.9 Research vessel "Albatross III", 1948.

The expedition on the Danish ship Galatea (displacement 1630 tons) was tasked with studying life at great depths. This expedition managed to catch bottom inhabitants from great depths with a trawl in the Pacific Ocean, in the Philippine Trench. In 1949, a Danish expedition ship lifted a dredge from a depth of 10,190 m. It found 25 sea anemones, 75 holothurians, 5 bivalve shells, and other living creatures. This discovery proved the existence of life at great depths.

Fig. 1.10 The ship "Galatea", image in the Museum of the World Ocean, 1986.

The British expedition on the ship Challenger II (displacement 1140 tons) carried out oceanographic and hydrobiological research with only 5 scientists. The Challenger's route basically followed the route of the Albatross, but the objectives of the expedition were different. Scientists led by T.F. Geskell pioneered the use of seismic sounding. Based on the research results, dozens of sections of the earth's crust were constructed. The data obtained made it possible to explain how the main forms of seabed relief were formed. In 1951, the Mariana Trench was explored by a ship, after which the deepest part of the trench was named the Challenger Fault. The expedition confirmed the assumption that all oceans have central ridges associated with the instability of the vast and flat ocean floor.

Fig. 1.11 The ship "Challenger II".

In general, oceanological research in the Pacific Ocean has been intensifying abroad in the post-war years. Circumnavigation of the world brings a lot of new information about the topography of the ocean floor, bottom sediments, life in the ocean, and the physical characteristics of its waters.

The world's largest oxygen minimum zone is located in the eastern Pacific Ocean off the coast of Peru and Ecuador. It was she who became the goal of a four-month expedition of German oceanologists from the Leibniz Institute in Kiel on the R/V Meteor.

Rice. 1.12 R/V Meteor

One of the main questions facing researchers is how such zones change as a result of climate change?

Oceanologists from the Climate - Biogeochemical Interactions in Tropical Oceans (SFB 754) working group investigated this phenomenon and conducted a four-month expedition to the world's largest oxygen minimum zone in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

From mid-October 2008 to February 2009, a total of four teams of geologists, geochemists, oceanographers, biologists and meteorologists from SFB 754 worked on the German research vessel METEOR and carried out a host of physical, chemical and biological measurements that could provide clues about the state of the Pacific oxygen zone. minimum.

The first comparison of current data with the results of measurements made in 1993 in the open part of the Pacific Ocean showed that in the equatorial region the oxygen content in the water has decreased. At the same time, measurements taken further south showed an increase in oxygen volumes. This, however, is not enough to negate the general decline in oxygen levels in the Pacific Ocean, since the general trend allows for short-term spatial and temporal variations.

Closer to the Peruvian coast, the oxygen minimum zone is an area in which nutrient-rich water masses rise from depths of more than 150 meters to the surface and are responsible for very high biological productivity there. When organisms die, bacteria create large amounts of organic material while consuming the oxygen that marine life needs to survive.

Another surprise awaited microbiologists: along with the usual high level of chlorophyll observed at the surface - plant plankton lives here - a second maximum was recorded at a depth of 100 meters, that is, in the center of the oxygen minimum. Presumably, there is a community of photosynthetic algae (cyanobacteria and blue-green algae) that were previously unknown in this region.

Because few in-situ measurements of oxygen have been made to date, it is difficult to draw conclusions about long-term variability from these data. This requires historical climate data such as sediment cores. Almost 400 meters of cores were brought aboard during the M 77 expedition.

During the expedition, German oceanologists collaborated with the Peruvian marine research institute IMARPE (Instituto del Mar del Perъ).

This chapter provides an overview of the phased exploration of the Pacific Ocean in the modern period. Such personalities as Thor Heyerdahl, Jacques-Yves Cousteau are considered. The work of the research vessel and individual research vessels is analyzed.

Chapter 2. Progress of exploration of the Pacific Ocean

Due to the rapidity and unbalanced nature of the processes of self-accelerating growth and its sudden cessation during the demographic transition, those long-term connections created over centuries of the historical process will be disrupted not only at the level of the individual, individual and society, but also at a higher level of countries and states, on the scale of world history . In other words, the world is now more likely to be dominated by centrifugal forces, rather than centripetal, organizing and self-organizing factors as trends global development.

Rice. 2.1 Population growth.

2.1 Stages: background, level of technology, geography of research and chronology of research

The history of exploration of the Pacific Ocean is divided into 7 periods: from ancient voyages to 1749, from 1749 to 1873, from 1873 to 1939, from 1939 to 1973, from 1973 to 1984, from 1984 to 1998 and finally from 1998 to 2012.

Research of the Pacific Ocean began by Soviet expeditions on the ships “Vityaz” (1949), “A.I. Voeikov" (since 1959), "Yu.M. Shokalsky" (1960), "Academician Sergei Korolev" (1970), which for the first time began to carry out a wide range of geophysical research aimed at studying the hydrosphere and high layers of the atmosphere. At the same time, research was carried out by US expeditions on the ships Horizon (1946), Hew M. Smith (1950), Spencer F. Berd (1946) and others , Great Britain - “Challenger II” (Challenger II) (1950-52), Sweden - “Albatros III” (Albatross III) (1947-48), Denmark - “Galatea” (1950-52) and many others.

Of particular importance were observations under the Norpac plan (August 1955) and Ecvapac (in subsequent years), under the International Geophysical Year (IGY) and International Geophysical Cooperation (since 1957) program, as well as under the International Studies of Kuroshio and Surrounding Areas (since 1965). The implementation of these programs made it possible to unite and synchronize the work of a large number of expeditionary vessels from different countries. The greatest activity in studying the underwater relief of the Pacific Ocean during the International Geophysical Year was shown by the United States (expeditions on the ships Spencer F. Baird, Horizon, Vima, Atka, Glacier and others) and the Soviet Union (the most important the results were obtained during expeditions on the Vityaz and Ob).

Rice. 2.2 Regions of study of the Pacific Ocean in different years [comp. by the author according to 23].

Materials collected during the IGY period made it possible to compile new bathymetric and marine navigation maps of the Pacific Ocean. Also of great value are the deep-sea drilling work carried out since 1968 on the American vessel Glomar Challenger, work on the movement of water masses at great depths, and biological research.

2.2 Key directions, goals of research of the Pacific Ocean regions by various states

Until 1749, the main areas of research were the development of sea routes, trade with other peoples, and the creation of colonies.

From 1789 to 1873 A specialized study of ocean surface waters was carried out for a year.

From 1873 to 1939 research was carried out for the purpose of commercial exploration.

From 1939 to 1973 route networks are being created.

From 1973 to 1984 Networks of stationary observations with satellite monitoring are being created.

From 1984 to 1998 the accumulated knowledge is systematized.

From 1998 to 2012 comprehensive study, integration of all knowledge.

The areas of modern research in the Pacific Ocean will be the following: regional tectonics, geology, geophysics and geochemistry of the seafloor, hydrothermal systems, physical properties of the ocean surface and commercial exploitation of the ocean floor.

2.3 Regional division and zoning of the Pacific Ocean

The nature of the World Ocean, as well as the nature of the land, is subject to the law of geographic zonation. Ocean zoning is the main pattern of distribution of all properties in the waters of the World Ocean, manifested in a change in physical-geographical zones to a depth of 1500-2000 m. But this pattern is most clearly observed in the upper active layer of the ocean to a depth of 200 m.

First of all, the largest regionalization units are distinguished: the Atlantic, Arctic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. Oceans are divided into physical-geographical belts, which are characterized by the specificity of natural processes occurring. The boundaries of these belts in some cases deviate significantly from the latitudinal direction, which is mainly due to the nature of the horizontal circulation in a particular region of the World Ocean. In specific parts of geographical zones, areas are identified in which natural processes are determined by the originality geographical location these areas in relation to the continents and islands, their depths, wind systems, etc. This uniqueness is especially pronounced in the continental parts of the belts.

The cycle of work on ocean zoning carried out by GOIN ends with the monograph by V.M. published in the proceedings of this institute in 1975. Gruzinov “Frontal zones of the World Ocean”. This work advances the idea that the natural boundaries of the main oceanic regions are frontal zones, which, in the opinion of this author, coincide with the boundaries of geographic zones. Thus, the ocean is divided by V.M. Gruzinov into relatively homogeneous areas, and homogeneity turns out to be the main principle of separation.

Rice. 2.3 Ocean fronts and water masses (according to Stepanov, 1974).

1 - oceanic fronts: E - equatorial; WITH b E - subequatorial; Ts - tropical northern; Ty - tropical southern; SbAr - subarctic, SbAn - subantarctic; Ar - arctic; An - Antarctic, 2 - water masses (designations in circles); E - equatorial; Ts - northern tropical; Ty - southern tropical; Tar - tropical waters of the Arabian Sea; TB - tropical waters of the Bay of Bengal; SbTe - subtropical northern, SbTu - subtropical southern; SbAr - subarctic; SbAn subantarctic; Ar - Arctic; An - Antarctic.

Unfortunately, it should be noted that the concept of “front” is not formulated quite clearly in modern oceanological literature, and therefore fronts are defined as convergent and divergent. So, V.N. Stepanov believed that “ocean fronts are border zones of two adjacent macrocirculation systems and the water masses formed in them.”

Leontyev O.K. made a regionalization of the Pacific Ocean based on land vegetation zones.

Rice. 2.4 Physiographic zones at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean (according to Leontiev, 1974).

Northern zones: 1 - polar, 2 - subpolar, 3 - temperate, 4 - subtropical, 5 - tropical, 6 - equatorial; southern: 7 - tropical, 8 - subtropical, 9 - temperate, 10 - subpolar, 11 - polar.

In 1985 D.V. Bogdanov came to the idea of dividing the ocean into areas that are homogeneous in relation to the natural processes prevailing in them.

In the scheme he proposed, the main criterion was taken to be the characteristics of the thermohaline structure and, to some extent, the main currents (Fig. 2.5).

Rice. 2.5 Regionalization of the Pacific Ocean (D.V. Bogdanov, 1985).

D.V. Bogdanov in the Pacific Ocean identified (from north to south) the following natural zones (Fig. 2.5.), which are in good agreement with natural areas sushi:

Northern temperate SS with water temperature 5-15°C; corresponds to the temperate (taiga, deciduous forests, steppe) zone;

Northern subtropical STS coinciding with quasi-stationary regions high pressure(Azores and Hawaiian highs); corresponds to dry and humid subtropics and northern desert regions;

Northern tropical (trade wind) ST, located between the average annual northern and southern boundaries of the trade wind; corresponds to tropical deserts and savannas;

Equatorial E, slightly shifted to the north along with the thermal equator and characterized by very warm (27-29°C) desalinated waters; corresponds to moist equatorial forests;

Southern tropical (trade wind) UT; corresponds to savannas and tropical deserts;

Southern subtropical JUST, which appears less clearly than in the northern hemisphere; corresponds to dry and humid subtropics;

South temperate SE, located between the subtropical convergence and the Antarctic convergence; corresponds to a temperate, treeless zone;

Southern subpolar (subantarctic) SSP between Antarctic convergence and Antarctic divergence; corresponds to the subpolar land zone;

South Polar (Antarctic) SP, which mainly includes shelf seas around Antarctica; corresponds to the ice zone of Antarctica.

Despite the fact that D.V.’s scheme Bogdanova complied with the general geographical principles of zoning; she needs to clarify the spatial location of the various zones and their boundaries.

Apparently, the zonal classification should be based on the main oceanic and dynamic fronts in the ocean, which will be fairly clear boundaries between physiographic zones in the oceans.

Gruzinov V.M. Taking into account the natural boundaries between latitude zones, he developed a diagram of the geographical zones of the World Ocean (from north to south):

Subpolar zone, located between the polar and subpolar fronts;

Temperate zone located between the northern subpolar front and the northern subtropical convergence;

Subtropical zone located between the northern subtropical convergence and the northern tropical front; the northern border of the zone is blurred;

Tropical zone bounded by the northern tropical front and the northern tropical divergence;

The equatorial zone, located between the northern and southern tropical divergences;

The southern tropical zone, located between the southern tropical divergence and the southern tropical front;

Southern subtropical zone, bounded by the southern tropical front and southern subtropical convergence;

South Temperate Zone, located between the southern subtropical convergence and the southern subpolar front;

Southern subpolar zone, located between the southern subpolar and south polar fronts;

The southern polar zone, located south of the southern polar front.

A comparison of certain physical-geographical zoning schemes shows that they are based on the zonal-azonal principle of zoning the surface waters of the World Ocean, with emphasis placed on the zonal division of the oceans and the identification of water areas adjacent to the continents.

Currently, the most accepted scheme for the physical-geographical zoning of the World Ocean is the scheme of D.V. Bogdanov (Fig. 2.5.).

Thus, an analysis of the experience of zoning the World Ocean shows that this important scientific and practical problem is extremely complex and multifaceted. Despite the progress achieved, the natural zoning of the World Ocean continues to remain the weakest link in the general scientific systematization of the spatial structure geographic envelope. This applies to both the fundamental principles and applied methods of oceanic zoning. Although today there are numerous schemes for sectoral (component or private) zoning of the ocean, the theoretical level and practical developments of ocean geography in complex physical-geographical zoning noticeably lag behind the level achieved by the corresponding section of land geography.

Chapter 3. Achievements of research and international projects 1990-2010

heyerdahl pacific ocean expedition

Russian research in the Pacific Ocean modern stage are carried out using deep-sea manned vehicles (GOV) “Mir-1” and “Mir-2” (1987-2005). An integrated data acquisition system, combining a variety of measuring equipment and computing facilities from 15 laboratories, makes it possible to automatically collect, process and record data on the atmosphere, aquatic environment and bottom soil. The unique working depth of the “Worlds” - 6000 m - is of great importance for scientific research.

Research continues, in particular, in the Mariana Trench in 2005: “At the bottom of the world’s deepest Mariana Trench in the center of the Pacific Ocean, Japanese researchers discovered 13 species of single-celled organisms unknown to science, existing unchanged for almost a billion years.” Microorganisms were found in soil samples taken in the Challenger Fault in the fall of 2002 by the Japanese automatic bathyscaphe "Kaiko" at a depth of 10,900 meters. In 10 cm 3 of soil, a group of specialists led by Professor H. Kitazato from the Japanese Organization for the Study and Development of the Ocean discovered 449 unknown primitive single-celled organisms.

A team of Australian scientists examined a trench in the Tasmanian fault zone in 2006. The dives revealed some of Australia's deepest known fauna, including the predatory sea squirt, sea spiders and giant sponges.

In May 2009, using the Jenson ROV, oceanographers were able to discover and record the first video and photographs of the world's deepest underwater volcano spewing molten lava onto the ocean floor. This phenomenon occurs approximately 1.2 km below the surface of the Pacific Ocean, in the region of the volcanic belt, near Fiji, Tonga and Samoa. Samples collected near the volcano showed highly acidic seawater. Despite the harsh conditions, one species of shrimp lives here.

The unmanned robot Nereus reached the deepest known part of the ocean and became the third ship in history to explore Mariana Trench in the western Pacific. On May 31, 2009, Nereus sank to a depth of approximately 10,902 m and withstood more than 1,000 times atmospheric pressure.

Oceanographers from the Institute of Marine Research named after. Leibniz in December 2009 sailed on the German research vessel Sonne to the Woodlark Basin to the east Papua New Guinea. The purpose of the expedition was to explore the ocean floor in a geologically complex and active region of the Earth.

Rice. 3.1 Study area of the German vessel Sonne.

In this region, several plates collide in a small area, resulting in the creation of a new seafloor. The result is numerous earthquakes, manifestations of volcanic activity, and associated dangerous phenomena such as tsunamis. While on the research vessel Sonne, German oceanographers spent six weeks conducting detailed studies of these complex structures in the Woodlark Basin.

An important area of modern research is environmental: the world's oceans are littered with waste, which causes a negative impact not only on the underwater world, but also on coastal life and ecology (Fig. 3.2.).

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Rice. 3.3 Trash movement in the North Pacific Ocean.

In 2009, the UN Environment prepared a report, Marine Litter: A Global Challenge. Much of the trash enters the ocean from land. An experiment in Australia revealed that 80% of ocean trash was dumped on land. The problem of pollution is most acute in the Pacific Ocean, where the American ships New Horizon and Project Kaisei in August 2009 explored an “island” of garbage that was noticed by scientists back in 2004.

Rice. 3.4. Regions of Pacific Ocean Research [comp. by the author on 6, 16, 23, 29].

3.1 International project "Argo"

The Argo project, in essence, comes down to the creation of a long-term global network of permanent oceanographic stations based on drifting measuring buoys.

Data from this network arrives daily and in large quantities (with a planned number of 3000 buoys, about 100,000 STD stations should be produced annually). The measurement resolution of each buoy is 10 days, and the planned lower measurement horizon is 2000 m.

Each buoy drifts for 10 days at a given depth, then descends to a horizon of 2000 m. From a horizon of 2000 m, it floats to the surface, measuring temperature and salinity (electrical conductivity). Then, within 6 hours, the data is transmitted to several Argos satellites, which continuously forward it to two Argos onshore centers. The buoy is then lowered to the drift depth and the cycle continues until the batteries are depleted (operating period is about 4 years or about 120 stations).

The buoy may finish its job prematurely (get caught in fishing nets or be washed ashore). Some areas of the World Ocean may be exposed due to buoy drift. To compensate for this, provision is made for the replenishment of buoys and their reuse. In the future, it is envisaged that the buoys will move independently at the end of the cycle upon command and use feedback to change operating parameters (for example, drift depth).

In addition to oceanographic stations, when using buoys, the characteristics of deep (at the drift horizon) currents and surface currents (during the period of being on the surface) are determined.

Measurements of currents, temperature, salinity, as well as density determined from them, together with data on the elevation of the sea surface from special satellites, provide a comprehensive picture of the state of the ocean.

The created network of oceanographic stations is useful both for monitoring the state of the World Ocean and for long-term weather forecasting. Together with a network of existing surface buoys and a network of coastal weather stations, the created network forms the basis of a new oceanographic science - operational oceanography.

The buoy technology was created during the World Ocean Circulation Project (WOCE). Currently, buoys are produced by WEBB Corporation (Falmouth, USA), three US organizations and in France.

All observational data from the buoys is transmitted via satellite receiving stations to two Argo data centers and to national Argo data centers.

There are currently two global Argo Data Centers: in Monterrey (USA) and in Toulouse (France).

All countries participating in the project have national data centers (USA, France, UK, Canada, Australia, Germany, Japan, South Korea).

All data on the Argo project are declared freely available to the world community (through the global GTS network). Complete observations that have passed the control (so-called delayed data) are available through the national Argo data centers with a delay of up to 5 months.

It should be noted that measuring buoys were used before the start of the project (2001), and also, some measurements made with their help are used outside this project.

Over the next 10 years, the global network of Argo floats will improve our understanding of the processes occurring in the World Ocean and its impact on processes in the atmosphere, namely:

· determine the structure of the waters of the World Ocean and its variability;

· clarify the nature of global water circulation in the World Ocean;

· evaluate meridional heat transfer in the ocean;

· determine the influence of long-term ocean surface temperature anomalies on changes in atmospheric circulation;

· study the cause-and-effect relationships of such phenomena as El Niño, etc.;

· assess the role of the World Ocean in climate change.

This range of tasks can be expanded depending on the completeness of data on the World Ocean, both in space and time.

To obtain new operational information on the World Ocean, the following should be developed:

Methods for reconstructing ocean surface parameters based on satellite data and data obtained from measuring buoys;

Calculation methods for mapping parameters that allow assessing the state of the ocean (vertical and horizontal distribution of T, S, TS curves, dynamic heights, maps of currents on the surface and at the 2000 m horizon, etc.);

New numerical models of ocean circulation and improve existing ones for forecasting hydrometeorological parameters;

Procedures for four-dimensional objective analysis of oceanic parameters.

The governing bodies of the project are:

· information center "Argo" (Toulouse);

· Scientific Committee "Argo" (meets once a year);

· Argo Data Committee (also meets annually).

To date, 4 meetings of the Scientific Committee and two of the Data Committee have taken place.

Argo consists of five regional centers (Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean), which are separated mainly by the ocean basin. These regional centers are an important part of the Argo program as they help ensure the quality of Argo data in a more targeted manner than DACs (Data Analysis Center software) or GDACs (Global Disaster Alert Coordination Network), but in a broader sense than individual PIs. They can also promote participation and cooperation between a large number of countries working on the same ocean region.

The Argo Pacific Regional Center (PARC) was established as a joint collaboration between the Japan Maritime Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC), the International Pacific Research Center (IPRC) at the University of Hawaii, and the Commonwealth of Scientific and Industrial Research (CIP). CSIRO). PARC undertakes the responsibility of recording all data on voyages in the Pacific Ocean, through rigorous research, and obtaining detailed information based on these voyages.

The figure below shows the location of all the buoys that are deployed in the Pacific Ocean:

Rice. 3.5 Location of all buoys.

3.2 Satellite research

Modern research of the Pacific Ocean is also carried out using images from space satellites. This method allows you to quickly and efficiently collect information from a large area. In particular, this is how the amplitude of the tsunami was obtained, which was caused by an earthquake with a magnitude of 9.0-9.1 on the Richter scale (Fig. 3.6.). This earthquake occurred on March 11, 2011 east of the island. Honshu (Japan). Using the satellite, the travel time of each wave of a given tsunami was also calculated (Fig. 3.7.).

Rice. 3.6 Tsunami amplitude (cm).

Rice. 3.7 Tsunami travel time

3.3 Other studies

Recently, the waters of the Pacific Ocean have been widely used in various directions: scientific, economic, military, transport (Fig. 3.8.). In particular, this is demonstrated by the map below:

Rice. 3.8 Use of Pacific Ocean waters for transport, economic and scientific purposes [comp. by the author on 3, 4, 24, 32, 36, 37, 38].

Conclusion

The first chapter examines the research activities of T. Heyerdahl and J.-I. Cousteau. T. Heyerdahl's research activities consisted of practical research. They gave impetus to further study of the Polynesian problem. It was thanks to his books and films that Easter Island became widely known. T. Heyerdahl was the first to draw attention to the alarming scale of pollution of the World Ocean. J.-I. Cousteau was the inventor of scuba gear. He devoted his scientific activity to the study of underwater life at various latitudes of the World Ocean and the relationship between man and marine animals in their natural environment. Work by J.-I. Cousteau created a simple way to share scientific concepts, soon began to be used in other disciplines, and became one of the most important characteristics of modern television broadcasting. Also, the first chapter examines the research activities of the 1950-1990s: the geophysical, geological, biological and meteorological data accumulated during the expeditions of the R/V Vityaz and Dmitry Mendeleev, as well as circumnavigation of the world, are analyzed.

The second chapter examines the periodization of exploration of the Pacific Ocean. There are 2 of them: before 1873 and after 1873. The first stage was characterized by the study of the distribution of water and land in this part of the globe, the establishment of the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and its connection with other oceans, as well as the study physical properties water and deep-sea exploration. The second period was the development of comprehensive oceanological research, special expeditions and coastal stations, the organization of oceanological scientific institutions and international associations. This chapter also discusses regionalization schemes for the Pacific Ocean.

The third chapter presents the latest research aimed at discovering, studying and clarifying the conditions of the least studied areas of the Pacific Ocean (discovery of new groups of islands in Oceania, study of the biota of individual trenches). The purpose and objectives of the work were implemented in the form of structured chapters of the work, tables, illustrative and cartographic material.

All tasks posed in the work have been completely resolved. Data on the latest research in the Pacific Ocean are summarized.

Prospects for further consideration of this topic include studying research trends, the latest technical means and measurement techniques. The most relevant in the 21st century is the study of the ocean from space (cosmography, space geography).

List of sources used

1. Bezrukov Yu.F. Oceanology. At 2 o'clock, Part 1. - Simferopol, Tauride national. University named after IN AND. Vernadsky, 2006. - 159 p.

2. Bogucharskaya V.T. History of Geography. - M.: Academic Project, 2006. - 560 p.

3. All about geology [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://web.ru/db/msg.html?mid=1160474&uri=ris4.htm - Access date: 05/12/2011.

4. Geo-tour [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://geo-tour.net/Interesting/pic/ocean/dirty1.jpg - Access date: 05/12/2011.

5. Dubile D. The amazing world of the bottom // National Geographic Russia. - 2006. ? No. 1. - With. 104-121.

6. Institute of Oceanology RAS named after. P.P. Shirshova [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://www.ocean.ru/ - Access date: 01/25/2011.

7. Kapitsa S.P. How many people have lived, are living and will live on Earth. Essay on the theory of human growth. - M.: Nauka, 1999. - 190 p.

8. Kisel V.P. Discoverers of the world: wonderful travelers, explorers, pioneers. - Mn.: BelEn, 2001. - 464 p.

9. Kort V.G. Geography of the World Ocean. Pacific Ocean./ V.G. Court, S.S. Salnikov. - L.: Nauka, 1981. - 388 p.

10. Kuznetsov O.A. Research vessel "Dmitry Mendeleev" and its expeditions 1965-1993. / O.A. Kuznetsov, D.L. Aleynik. - M.: BelEn, 2002. - 372 p.

11. Magidovich I.P. Essays on the history of geographical discoveries, V 5t., T. 5// I.P. Magidovich, V.I. Magidovich. - M.: Education, 1986. - 223 p.

12. Maksakovsky, V.P. Geographical picture of the world, In 2 books, Vol. 1// V.P. Maksakovsky. - M.: Bustard, 2008. - 495 p.

13. Markov K.K. Physical geography of the World Ocean. - L.: Nauka, 1980. - 362 p.

14. Museum of the World Ocean [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://world-ocean.ru/ - Access date: 01/25/2011-01/30/2011.

15. Novikov, K. Unsinkable captain // Money. - 2005. ? No. 22. - With. 83-88.

16. Oceanology. Oceanography - study, problems and resources of the world ocean Oceanology [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://www.oceanographers.ru/ - Access date: 01/27/2011.

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COURSE WORK

Analysis of modern research on the Pacific Ocean

Introduction

Chapter 1. Historical and geographical overview of studies of the Pacific Ocean in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries.

1 Curriculum vitae

2 Results of the work of research vessels

Chapter 2. Progress of exploration of the Pacific Ocean

1 Stages: background, level of technology, geography of research and chronology of research

2 Key directions, goals of research of the Pacific Ocean regions by various states

3 Regional division and zoning of the Pacific Ocean

Chapter 3. Achievements of research and international projects 1990-2010

1 International project "Argo"

2 Satellite research

3 Other studies

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

For Belarus, research in the Pacific Ocean is of practical importance. First of all, this is the organization of fishing in the water area, the development of trade relations and recreation. The creation of a Belarusian maritime merchant fleet is one of the areas of implementation of the Program for the Development of Inland Water and Maritime Transport for 2011-2015. Up to 20 million tons of Belarusian export goods are transported annually by sea: mineral fertilizers, petroleum products, metal, wheeled vehicles, tires, sugar, to the countries of Latin America and Asia. Also important are studies of El Niño and La Niña, the consequences of which indirectly affect the agroclimatic conditions of Belarus.

The purpose of the course work was to analyze modern research in the Pacific Ocean. The following tasks were set:

characterize the personal contribution of modern scientists to the research of the Pacific Ocean;

analyze the research activities of three round-the-world expeditions and compare the directions of Soviet and foreign research;

present the history of research and systematize data on research areas.

Chapter 1. Historical and geographical overview of studies of the Pacific Ocean in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries.

Since 1949, the Soviet expedition ship Vityaz began operating in the Pacific Ocean. Expeditions on the Vityaz studied and described three main types of ocean floor uplifts: arched uplifts, which mainly include structures that come to the surface in the form of the Marshall Islands, Line Islands, Tuamotu Islands and a number of others; blocky ridges and massifs (Shatsky Upland, Nazca Ridge); marginal swells, confined mainly to the outer sides of a number of deep-sea trenches - Aleutian, Kuril-Kamchatka, Philippine.

In 1986, the R/V Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, carrying the Pysis GOA, made a special voyage to study volcanically active areas of the northeastern Pacific Ocean.

The study of the islands of Oceania remained a relevant area of research. In the early 1990s, the Rajaampat group of islands was first discovered, which has now become an important recreational area.

A team of Australian scientists in 2006 explored a trench in the Tasmanian Rift Zone, in which scientists were able to find species not studied by modern science - soft corals.

In May 2009, using the Jenson ROV, oceanographers were able to discover and record the first video and photographs of the world's deepest underwater volcano spewing molten lava onto the ocean floor.

.1 Curriculum Vitae

Thor Heyerdahl

Thor Heyerdahl (October 6, 1914, Larvik, Norway - April 18, 2002, Alassio, Italy) is a famous Norwegian traveler and anthropologist.

In 1946, he put forward a theory according to which Polynesia was settled by settlers from South America who lived in Peru during pre-Incan times. Before the expedition, T. Heyerdahl and five other travelers - Knut Haugland, Bengt Danielsson, Eric Hesselberg, Torstein Robue and Hermann Watzinger - arrived in Peru, where they built a pae-pae raft from balsa wood and other natural materials, which they called "Kon-Tiki" " On August 7, 1947, after 101 days of navigation, the Kon-Tiki, having covered 4,300 nautical miles (8,000 km) in the Pacific Ocean, washed onto the reefs of the Raroia Atoll of the Tuamotu Islands.

Fig 1.1 Thor Heyerdahl.

Rice. 1.2 Thor Heyerdahl and Ra-II.

Rice. 1.3 Ocean currents and the Kon-Tiki route [comp. by the author according to 6].

The Kon-Tiki demonstrated that a primitive raft, using the Humboldt Current and a favorable wind, could indeed sail westward across the Pacific Ocean relatively easily and safely: thanks to a system of keels and a sail.

In 1955-1956 T. Heyerdahl organized the Norwegian archaeological expedition to Easter Island.

Rice. 1.4 Raft of the Tangaroa expedition 2006.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau

Cousteau was born in Saint-André-de-Cubzac, the son of a lawyer, Daniel and Elizabeth Cousteau. In 1930, he enlisted in the Navy as head of an underwater research group. Fascinated by scuba diving, J.-I. Cousteau in 1938 created a group of divers and began research into the physiology of scuba diving. In 1943, he tested the first prototype of a scuba gear, which he developed together with Emile Gagnan. This allowed for long dives. J.-I. Cousteau became the creator of waterproof cameras and lighting devices, and also invented the first underwater television system.

Fig 1.5 Jacques-Yves Cousteau.

Rice. 1.6 "Calypso".

1.2 Results of the work of research vessels

Between 1947-1949 On the initiative of employees of the Institute of Oceanology, the Equator, renamed Admiral Makarov, was converted into a research vessel of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1949, the ship changed its name for the last time, becoming “Vityaz” in memory of two Russian corvettes of the 19th century. "Vityaz" -

) sailing-screw corvette (1862-1895), which completed 2 round-the-world voyages under the command of Captain P.N. Nazimov and brought N. Miklouho-Maclay to New Guinea in 1871;

) sailing-screw corvette (1883-1893), which circumnavigated the world under the command of Captain S.O. Makarova.

Geophysical work carried out on the Vityaz made it possible to formulate well-founded hypotheses about the structure of the earth's crust in general, and subsequently to develop new ideas about the global evolution of the Earth (New Global Tectonics). As a result of research by the R/V Vityaz of the water column in the physics, chemistry and geology of the ocean. Over 30 years of voyage, the expeditions of the R/V Vityaz collected huge zoological collections, as a result of which more than 1,100 new species of living organisms, previously unknown to science, were described; 171 new genera and subgenera were established, as well as 26 new taxa of the rank of family, order and higher categories, including a new phylum of living organisms Brachiata. The name of this ship, enshrined in the names of one genus (Vitiaziella Rass) and eight species of fish.

Thanks to the research experience of 65 scientific expeditions, a new science was born and won the right to exist on the Vityaz - marine meteorology, the science of atmospheric processes over the ocean, with special measuring equipment, special methods of measurements and visual observations; The theory of interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere received in-depth development.

Rice. 1.7 R/V Vityaz during sea trials, 1948.

The second most important ship should be considered the R/V Dmitry Mendeleev. Research vessel of the Institute of Oceanology named after. P.P. Shirshov of the Russian Academy of Sciences "Dmitry Mendeleev" was built in 1968 and set out on its first scientific voyage in February 1969. Expeditionary voyages continued for 24 years and ended in 1993. A total of 50 voyages were carried out during this period, of which 30 are in the Pacific Ocean and its seas. Scientific teams have collected enormous material in all areas of oceanological science, which has led to a number of scientific discoveries and theoretical generalizations.

In the Pacific Ocean there are four thematic destinations for voyages:

· Hydrophysical direction (10);

· Geological-geophysical (one geochemical trip) direction (12);

· Hydrobiological direction (5);

· Complex (geographical) direction (1) (see Table 1.1).

Fig. 1.8 R/V "Dmitry Mendeleev" in the Pacific Ocean, 1978.

As can be seen from the table above, the R/V Vityaz and Dmitry Mendeleev conducted a comprehensive study of the waters of the Pacific Ocean. During this research, a number of discoveries were made that allowed people to learn more about the Pacific Ocean - its structure, physical and chemical properties, bottom structure, and biological diversity. Also, thanks to these studies, knowledge about the mechanism of tectonic movements in the earth's crust was expanded.

Fig. 1.9 Research vessel "Albatross III", 1948.

Fig. 1.10 The ship "Galatea", image in the Museum of the World Ocean, 1986.

Fig. 1.11 The ship "Challenger II".

Rice. 1.12 R/V Meteor

One of the main questions facing researchers is how such zones change as a result of climate change?

During the expedition, German oceanographers collaborated with the Peruvian Marine Research Institute IMARPE (Instituto del Mar del Perú).

Chapter 2. Progress of exploration of the Pacific Ocean

Rice. 2.1 Population growth.

2.1 Stages: background, level of technology, geography of research and chronology of research

Rice. 2.2 Regions of study of the Pacific Ocean in different years [comp. by the author according to 23].

.2 Key directions, goals of research of the Pacific Ocean regions by various states

Until 1749, the main areas of research were the development of sea routes, trade with other peoples, and the creation of colonies.

From 1789 to 1873 A specialized study of ocean surface waters was carried out for a year.

From 1873 to 1939 research was carried out for the purpose of commercial exploration.

From 1939 to 1973 route networks are being created.

From 1973 to 1984 Networks of stationary observations with satellite monitoring are being created.

From 1984 to 1998 the accumulated knowledge is systematized.

From 1998 to 2012 comprehensive study, integration of all knowledge.

2.3 Regional division and zoning of the Pacific Ocean

First of all, the largest regionalization units are distinguished: the Atlantic, Arctic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. Oceans are divided into physical-geographical belts, which are characterized by the specificity of natural processes occurring. The boundaries of these belts in some cases deviate significantly from the latitudinal direction, which is mainly due to the nature of the horizontal circulation in a particular region of the World Ocean. In specific parts of geographical zones, areas are identified in which natural processes are determined by the unique geographical location of these areas in relation to continents and islands, their depths, wind systems, etc. This uniqueness is especially pronounced in the continental parts of the belts.

Rice. 2.3 Ocean fronts and water masses (according to Stepanov, 1974).

Ocean fronts: E - equatorial; WITH bE - subequatorial; Ts - tropical northern; Tyu - tropical southern; SbAr - subarctic, SbAn - subantarctic; Ar - arctic; An - Antarctic, 2 - water masses (designations in circles); E - equatorial; Ts - north tropical; Tyu - southern tropical; Thar - tropical waters of the Arabian Sea; Tb - tropical waters of the Bay of Bengal; SbTe - subtropical northern, SbTu - subtropical southern; SbAr - subarctic; SbAn subantarctic; Ar - arctic; An - Antarctic.

Leontyev O.K. made a regionalization of the Pacific Ocean based on land vegetation zones.

Rice. 2.4 Physiographic zones at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean (according to Leontiev, 1974).

Northern zones: 1 - polar, 2 - subpolar, 3 - temperate, 4 - subtropical, 5 - tropical, 6 - equatorial; southern: 7 - tropical, 8 - subtropical, 9 - temperate, 10 - subpolar, 11 - polar.

In 1985 D.V. Bogdanov came to the idea of dividing the ocean into areas that are homogeneous in relation to the natural processes prevailing in them.

In the scheme he proposed, the main criterion was taken to be the characteristics of the thermohaline structure and, to some extent, the main currents (Fig. 2.5).

Rice. 2.5 Regionalization of the Pacific Ocean (D.V. Bogdanov, 1985).

D.V. In the Pacific Ocean, Bogdanov identified (from north to south) the following natural zones (Fig. 2.5.), which are in good agreement with natural land zones:

northern temperate SS with water temperature 5-15°C; corresponds to the temperate (taiga, deciduous forests, steppe) zone;

northern subtropical STS, coinciding with quasi-stationary high pressure areas (Azores and Hawaiian highs); corresponds to dry and humid subtropics and northern desert regions;

northern tropical (trade wind) ST, located between the average annual northern and southern boundaries of the trade wind; corresponds to tropical deserts and savannas;

equatorial E, slightly shifted to the north along with the thermal equator and characterized by very warm (27-29°C) desalinated waters; corresponds to moist equatorial forests;

southern tropical (trade wind) UT; corresponds to savannas and tropical deserts;

southern subtropical JUST, which appears less clearly than in the northern hemisphere; corresponds to dry and humid subtropics;

south temperate JU, located between the subtropical convergence and the Antarctic convergence; corresponds to a temperate, treeless zone;

southern subpolar (subantarctic) SSP between Antarctic convergence and Antarctic divergence; corresponds to the subpolar land zone;

the south polar (Antarctic) UP, which mainly includes shelf seas around Antarctica; corresponds to the ice zone of Antarctica.

Despite the fact that D.V.’s scheme Bogdanova complied with the general geographical principles of zoning; she needs to clarify the spatial location of the various zones and their boundaries.

Apparently, the zonal classification should be based on the main oceanic and dynamic fronts in the ocean, which will be fairly clear boundaries between physiographic zones in the oceans.

Gruzinov V.M. Taking into account the natural boundaries between latitude zones, he developed a diagram of the geographical zones of the World Ocean (from north to south):

subpolar zone, located between the polar and subpolar fronts;

temperate zone located between the northern subpolar front and the northern subtropical convergence;

subtropical zone, located between the northern subtropical convergence and the northern tropical front; the northern border of the zone is blurred;

tropical zone, bounded by the northern tropical front and the northern tropical divergence;

the equatorial zone, located between the northern and southern tropical divergences;

the southern tropical zone, located between the southern tropical divergence and the southern tropical front;

the southern subtropical zone, bounded by the southern tropical front and the southern subtropical convergence;

the southern temperate zone, located between the southern subtropical convergence and the southern subpolar front;

the southern subpolar zone, located between the southern subpolar and south polar fronts;

the south polar zone, located south of the southern polar front.

Currently, the most accepted scheme for the physical-geographical zoning of the World Ocean is the scheme of D.V. Bogdanov (Fig. 2.5.).

Thus, an analysis of the experience of zoning the World Ocean shows that this important scientific and practical problem is extremely complex and multifaceted. Despite the progress achieved, the natural zoning of the World Ocean continues to remain the weakest link in the general scientific systematization of the spatial structure of the geographical envelope. This applies to both the fundamental principles and applied methods of oceanic zoning. Although today there are numerous schemes for sectoral (component or private) zoning of the ocean, the theoretical level and practical developments of ocean geography in complex physical-geographical zoning noticeably lag behind the level achieved by the corresponding section of land geography.

Chapter 3. Achievements of research and international projects 1990-2010

heyerdahl pacific ocean expedition

Russian research in the Pacific Ocean at the present stage is carried out using the deep-sea manned vehicles (GOV) “Mir-1” and “Mir-2” (1987-2005). An integrated data acquisition system, combining a variety of measuring equipment and computing facilities from 15 laboratories, makes it possible to automatically collect, process and record data on the atmosphere, aquatic environment and bottom soil. The unique working depth of the “Worlds” - 6000 m - is of great importance for scientific research.

Research continues, in particular, in the Mariana Trench in 2005: “At the bottom of the world’s deepest Mariana Trench in the center of the Pacific Ocean, Japanese researchers discovered 13 species of single-celled organisms unknown to science, existing unchanged for almost a billion years.” Microorganisms were found in soil samples taken in the Challenger Fault in the fall of 2002 by the Japanese automatic bathyscaphe "Kaiko" at a depth of 10,900 meters. At 10 cm 3soil, a group of specialists led by Professor H. Kitazato from the Japanese Organization for Ocean Research and Development discovered 449 unknown primitive single-celled organisms.

The unmanned robot Nereus has reached the deepest known part of the ocean and became the third vessel in history to explore the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific Ocean. On May 31, 2009, Nereus sank to a depth of approximately 10,902 m and withstood more than 1,000 times atmospheric pressure.

Oceanographers from the Institute of Marine Research named after. Leibniz in December 2009 sailed on the German research vessel Sonne to the Woodlark Basin east of Papua New Guinea. The purpose of the expedition was to explore the ocean floor in a geologically complex and active region of the Earth.

Rice. 3.1 Study area of the German vessel Sonne.

Rice. 3.3 Trash movement in the North Pacific Ocean.

Rice. 3.4. Regions of Pacific Ocean Research [comp. by the author on 6, 16, 23, 29].

.1 International project "Argo"

The Argo project, in essence, comes down to the creation of a long-term global network of permanent oceanographic stations based on drifting measuring buoys.

In addition to oceanographic stations, when using buoys, the characteristics of deep (at the drift horizon) currents and surface currents (during the period of being on the surface) are determined.

The buoy technology was created during the World Ocean Circulation Project (WOCE). Currently, buoys are produced by WEBB Corporation (Falmouth, USA), three US organizations and in France.

All observational data from the buoys is transmitted via satellite receiving stations to two Argo data centers and to national Argo data centers.

There are currently two global Argo Data Centers: in Monterrey (USA) and in Toulouse (France).

All countries participating in the project (USA, France, UK, Canada, Australia, Germany, Japan, South Korea) have national data centers.

It should be noted that measuring buoys were used before the start of the project (2001), and also, some measurements made with their help are used outside this project.

Over the next 10 years, the global network of Argo floats will improve our understanding of the processes occurring in the World Ocean and its impact on processes in the atmosphere, namely:

· determine the structure of the waters of the World Ocean and its variability;

· clarify the nature of global water circulation in the World Ocean;

· estimate meridional heat transfer in the ocean;

· determine the influence of long-term ocean surface temperature anomalies on changes in atmospheric circulation;

· study the cause-and-effect relationships of such phenomena as El Niño, etc.;

· assess the role of the World Ocean in climate change.

This range of tasks can be expanded depending on the completeness of data on the World Ocean, both in space and time.

To obtain new operational information on the World Ocean, the following should be developed:

methods for reconstructing ocean surface parameters based on satellite data and data obtained from measuring buoys;

calculation methods for mapping parameters that allow assessing the state of the ocean (vertical and horizontal distribution of T, S, TS curves, dynamic heights, maps of currents on the surface and at the 2000 m horizon, etc.);

new numerical models of ocean circulation and improve existing ones for forecasting hydrometeorological parameters;

procedures for four-dimensional objective analysis of oceanic parameters.

The governing bodies of the project are:

· Argo Information Center (Toulouse);

· Scientific Committee "Argo" (meets once a year);

· Argo Data Committee (also meets annually).

To date, 4 meetings of the Scientific Committee and two of the Data Committee have taken place.

Argo consists of five regional centers (Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean), which are separated mainly by the ocean basin. These regional centers are an important part of the Argo program as they help ensure the quality of Argo data in a more targeted manner than DACs (Data Analysis Center) or GDACs (Global Disaster Alert Coordination Network), but in a broader sense than individual PIs. They can also promote participation and cooperation between a large number of countries working on the same ocean region.

The figure below shows the location of all the buoys that are deployed in the Pacific Ocean:

Rice. 3.5 Location of all buoys.

.2 Satellite research

Rice. 3.6 Tsunami amplitude (cm).

Rice. 3.7 Tsunami travel time

3.3 Other studies

Recently, the waters of the Pacific Ocean have been widely used in various directions: scientific, economic, military, transport (Fig. 3.8.). In particular, this is demonstrated by the map below:

Rice. 3.8 Use of Pacific Ocean waters for transport, economic and scientific purposes [comp. by the author on 3, 4, 24, 32, 36, 37, 38].

Conclusion

The second chapter examines the periodization of exploration of the Pacific Ocean. There are 2 of them: before 1873 and after 1873. The first stage was characterized by the study of the distribution of water and land in this part of the globe, the establishment of the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and its connection with other oceans, as well as the study of the physical properties of water and deep-sea exploration. The second period was the development of comprehensive oceanological research, special expeditions and coastal stations, the organization of oceanological scientific institutions and international associations. This chapter also discusses regionalization schemes for the Pacific Ocean.

All tasks posed in the work have been completely resolved. Data on the latest research in the Pacific Ocean are summarized.

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The largest and most ancient of all oceans. Its area is 178.6 million km2. It can easily accommodate all the continents combined, which is why it is sometimes called the Great. The name “Pacific” is associated with the name of F., who traveled around the world and sailed through the Pacific Ocean under favorable conditions.

This ocean is truly great: it occupies 1/3 of the surface of the entire planet and almost 1/2 of the area. The ocean has an oval shape, it is especially wide at the equator.

The peoples inhabiting the Pacific coasts and islands have been sailing the ocean for a long time and exploring its riches. Information about the ocean was accumulated as a result of the voyages of F. Magellan, J. . The beginning of its wide study was laid in the 19th century by the first round-the-world Russian expedition of I.F. . Currently, a special one has been created for the study of the Pacific Ocean. Behind last years New data on its nature were obtained, the depth was determined, currents and the topography of the bottom and ocean were studied.

The southern part of the ocean from the shores of the Tuamotu Islands to the shores is an area of calm and stable. It was for this calm and silence that Magellan and his companions called the Pacific Ocean. But west of the Tuamotu Islands the picture changes dramatically. Calm weather is rare here; stormy winds usually blow, often turning into... These are the so-called southern squalls, especially fierce in December. Tropical cyclones are less frequent but more intense. They arrive at the beginning of autumn from, at the northern tip they turn into warm westerly winds.

The tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean are clean, transparent and have medium salinity. Their deep dark blue color amazed observers. But sometimes the waters here turn green. This is due to the development of marine life. In the equatorial part of the ocean, favorable weather. The temperature over the sea is about 25°C and remains almost unchanged throughout the year. Winds of moderate strength blow here. At times there is complete calm. The sky is clear, the nights are very dark. The balance is especially stable in the area of the Polynesian islands. In the calm belt there are frequent heavy but short-term showers, mainly in the afternoon. Hurricanes are extremely rare here.

The warm waters of the ocean contribute to the work of corals, of which there are many. The Great Reef stretches along the eastern coast of Australia. This is the largest “ridge” created by organisms.

The western part of the ocean is under the influence of the monsoons with their sudden vagaries. Terrible hurricanes arise here and... They are especially ferocious in the northern hemisphere between 5 and 30°. Typhoons are frequent from July to October, with up to four per month in August. They originate in the area of the Caroline and Mariana Islands and then “make raids” on the shores, and. Since in the west of the tropical part of the ocean it is hot and rainy, the islands of Fiji, the New Hebrides, New Hebrides are not without reason considered one of the most unhealthy places on the globe.

The northern regions of the ocean are similar to the southern ones, only as if in a mirror image: circular rotation of the waters, but if in the southern part it is counterclockwise, then in the northern part it is clockwise; unstable weather in the west, where typhoons enter further north; cross currents: North Passat and South Passat; in the north of the ocean there is little floating ice, since the Bering Strait is very narrow and protects the Pacific Ocean from the influence of the Arctic Ocean. This distinguishes the north of the ocean from its south.

The Pacific Ocean is the deepest. Its average depth is 3980 meters, and its maximum reaches 11022 m. The ocean coast is in a seismic zone, as it is the boundary and place of interaction with other lithospheric plates. This interaction is accompanied by terrestrial and underwater and.

A characteristic feature is that the greatest depths are confined to its outskirts. Deep-sea depressions stretch in the form of narrow long trenches in the western and eastern parts of the ocean. Large uplifts divide the ocean floor into basins. In the east of the ocean is the East Pacific Rise, which is part of the system of mid-ocean ridges.

Currently, the Pacific Ocean plays an important role in the life of many countries. Half of the world's fish catch comes from this water area, a significant part of it being various shellfish, crabs, shrimp, and krill. In some countries, shellfish and various algae are grown on the seabed and used for food. Placer metals are being mined on the shelf, and oil is being extracted off the coast of the California Peninsula. Some countries are desalinizing sea water and use it. Important sea routes pass through the Pacific Ocean; the length of these routes is very large. Shipping is well developed, mainly along the continental coasts.

Human economic activity has led to the pollution of ocean waters and the extermination of some animal species. Thus, in the 18th century, sea cows were exterminated, discovered by one of the participants in V.'s expedition. Seals and whales are on the verge of extinction. Currently, their fishing is limited. Water pollution from industrial waste poses a great danger to the ocean.

Location: limited by the east coast, west coast of North and South America, north, south.
Square: 178.7 million km2
Average depth: 4,282 m.

Greatest depth: 11022 m (Mariana Trench).

Bottom relief: East Pacific Rise, Northeast, Northwestern, Central, Eastern, Southern and other basins, deep-sea trenches: Aleutian, Kurile, Mariana, Philippine, Peruvian and others.

Inhabitants: a large number of unicellular and multicellular microorganisms; fish (pollock, herring, salmon, cod, sea bass, beluga, chum salmon, pink salmon, sockeye salmon, chinook salmon and many others); seals, seals; crabs, shrimp, oysters, squid, octopus.

: 30-36.5 ‰.

Currents: warm - , North Pacific, Alaskan, South Trade Wind, East Australian; cold - Californian, Kuril, Peruvian, Western winds.

Additional Information: The Pacific Ocean is the largest in the world; Ferdinand Magellan crossed it for the first time in 1519, the ocean was called “Pacific” because during the entire three months of the journey, Magellan’s ships did not encounter a single storm; The Pacific Ocean is usually divided into northern and southern regions, the border of which runs along the equator.

10.02.2016

The Pacific Ocean is part of the ancient ocean of Panthalassa, which was divided into parts after the collapse and subsequent movement in different directions of parts of the supercontinent Pangea about 150 million years ago.

The coasts of North and South America, Asia and numerous islands have been inhabited since ancient times different peoples, so the exploration of the Pacific Ocean took place long before written evidence about it appeared. Thus, it is known that the Bismarck Archipelago (a group of islands in Melanesia) was inhabited about 30-35 thousand years ago. Presumably, the ancient Lapita people originated from there.

Archaeologists have discovered traces of the existence of the Lapita people on many islands of Polynesia and Micronesia and in Hawaii. Without writing and, obviously, possessing primitive knowledge of navigation, representatives of the most ancient peoples, nevertheless, were able to colonize land areas in different parts ocean, using for this simple rafts, junks and catamarans. The fact that it is possible to cross the Pacific Ocean on the simplest ships has been confirmed experimentally.

In 1947, the expedition of the Norwegian archaeologist Thor Heyerdahl traveled on balsa wood rafts from Peru to the Tuamotu Islands. Several centuries before the beginning of our era, the ancient Chinese civilization reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean, spreading along the Yellow River. Sailing along the marginal seas, the Chinese discovered, in particular, modern Japanese islands and the Korean Peninsula.

In the 4th-7th centuries AD there was already a sea route from China to India. It is known that merchant ships visited the Philippines and the islands of Micronesia. First detailed descriptions Chinese travels across the Pacific Ocean began in the 15th century, when the Ming Dynasty Emperor sent seven naval expeditions under the leadership of Zheng He.

In the 16th century, Europeans also reached the Pacific Ocean. More precisely, they could have been here before, but it was the voyage of the Portuguese Di Abreu and Serran in 1512 that was officially documented: in search of precious spices, they sailed from the Malacca Peninsula to the island of Ambon in the Moluccas archipelago. Just a year later, in 1513, the Spaniard Nunez de Balboa reached the eastern coast of the ocean, passing through the Isthmus of Panama.

Ferdinand Magellan's voyage across the Pacific Ocean in 1520 is known not only for his geographical discoveries, but also for the fact that during the 3-month journey his ship sailed from Tierra del Fuego to the Philippines and never encountered a storm. It was then that the ocean received the name “Pacific” from Magellan, which still exists today. In 1589, summarizing the data of various navigators, the Flemish cartographer Ortelius published the first detailed map of the Pacific Ocean.

In the 17th-18th centuries, the development of the Pacific Ocean by Europeans was very active. The Dutchman Tasman, as a result of his voyages, proved that Australia is a separate continent and discovered New Zealand, Tonga and Fiji. The Englishman James Cook, during his expeditions around the world, explored these islands and put them on maps, and also established contacts with the natives.

The Italian Malaspina studied and mapped the entire western coast of both Americas. French explorers also traveled to the Pacific islands, exploring opportunities for trade, hunting, and colonization of the land. The main explorers of the northern part of the ocean were Russian travelers: Dezhnev, Bering, Chirikov.

In the South Pacific, the greatest success of Russian navigators was the discovery of Antarctica by Bellingshausen and Lazarev in 1819-1821. In the 19th century, during the round-the-world expedition of Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky, and later Otto Kotzebue, not only the “white spots” on the world map were explored, but also oceanographic work was carried out: depths, pressure, temperature, and salinity of water were measured.

In the 20th century, British, German, Soviet and American scientists and navigators made a huge contribution to the study of the Pacific Ocean. Since the ocean is a zone of economic, political and scientific interests of many countries of the world, various international events according to his research.