Johannes Gutenberg is one of the most famous figures in history. As of the mid-20th century, the number of works on the topic of “Gutenberg studies” exceeded several thousand titles, after which thousands more appeared.
Gutenberg was not the inventor of printing. He was an innovator, the creator of a unique machine with movable type. In this capacity he went down in history.
Typography before Gutenberg
It is known that book printing was invented at least twice. It was invented by the ancient Chinese in the first millennium. According to European sources, this happened in the 6th century, according to Chinese - in the tenth. It is reliably known that the first printed text precisely dated in time is the Diamond Sutra, and it appeared in 868.
Piece printing, which could be used to reproduce various designs or texts, was used in China during the Han era. In the 10th century, printing took place primarily on paper. In those years, several thousand sutras were printed, and the works of Confucius and his students were published. An experienced printer created about 2,000 double pages per working day.
The second time printing appeared several centuries later in Europe. The woodcut method was also used here - obtaining imprinted images from wooden planks. This method has been known in Europe since the beginning of the 14th century.
Biography of Gutenberg
Despite the abundance modern works, there is no sufficiently complete and coherent biography of the book printer. During his lifetime he was not known enough to be listed in official sources. Even the date of birth is unknown - they call different dates between 1395 and 1400.
Gutenberg was a jeweler by profession. He polished semi-precious stones, made mirrors, and trained young jewelers. In order to teach beginners, he himself had to receive the title of master and prove his professional skills, but where he himself studied is unknown.
In parallel with his main activity, he experimented in the field of printing. Eyewitnesses claimed that a certain prototype of a printing press was in his workshop already in 1438-39.
Gutenberg's printing press
Most researchers agree that Gutenberg developed the first printing press by 1440. The essence of the invention was as follows: he made special convex metal letters. The letters were "movable", making Gutenberg the creator of the first European typeface. They were made in mirror form in such a way that the text remained on the paper in a normal format.
Printing press Gutenberg is a fairly large structure, which was attached to the ceiling and floor with the help of special beams. The main part of the machine is a heavy press with a lever. Below it was a perfectly flat table, a thaler, which, if necessary, could be pulled out from under the press.
Many researchers believe that the basis for the invention of Gutenberg's printing press was an ordinary wine press, which had a similar mechanism.
Letters for the machine were made as follows:
- A letter in an inverted format was engraved on one end of a metal rod of a given diameter.
- The rod was lowered into the softened copper, and an imprint of the letter remained in the copper.
- This impression served as a matrix for the type cast in lead.
To optimize the work, the inventor created a special tool that makes it easier to cast letters. This tool is a special groove. On one side, a matrix is inserted into the gutter, and on the other side, molten lead is poured. After this, the chute opens and the finished type is removed from it. With this manufacturing method, one matrix was used to create any number of letters.
- Next, the typesetter creates a page layout from individual letters.
- Letters in the required sequence were inserted into a special form, forming lines.
- The result was a mirror image of the page.
- After this, the form was smeared with special printing ink and printing began.
- Using a press, the text was transferred from printed form on paper or similar material.
- A set of pages was placed on the table. The number of pages printed at the same time depended on the size of each; a maximum of 32 sheets could be laid out.
Video about the invention of the Gutenberg printing press
Gutenberg did not have the money to organize his own printing house, so he entered into a partnership with a moneylender from Mainz, Johann Fust. Fust gave money to open a printing house and undertook an agreement to pay a certain amount annually for operating expenses. The partnership was unsuccessful. Fust did not provide any additional amounts, and when Gutenberg did not pay the interest under the agreement, he went to court and sued the printing house. This made Fust one of the first European book printers and gave rise to the German legend that he was the inventor and first printer.
The invention of the printing press was attributed to several other pioneer printers from different countries. But, comparing known data and eyewitness accounts, scientists came to the conclusion that Johannes Gutenberg was the first.
Gutenberg Bible
One of the first books published after the invention of the Gutenberg printing press was a 42-line copy of the Bible, popularly called the Gutenberg Bible.
When creating this book on the first printing press, several related improvements and inventions were made:
- The standard printing ink used in woodcut printing could not be used in printing with movable metal type. Gutenberg developed his own paint composition, adding parts of sulfur, copper and lead. Thanks to this, the seal has not lost its clarity and shine even after half a millennium.
- Line spacing. The Gutenberg Bible originally had 40 lines on each page. Then the inventor had to save money, and he increased the number of lines to 42. In order to stay within the given limits and not go beyond the margins, he had to reduce the line spacing. In scientific circles the book is called 42-line.
- Two-color printing. Initially, the inventor passed the sheets through the press twice. For the first time, the main text of the book was printed using standard black printing ink, and the second time, the headings were printed in red ink. Several volumes were created in this manner, after which Gutenberg abandoned the practice. Later he left free place for headings, drop caps, footers, after which they were filled in manually.
Modern scholars have calculated that the circulation of this book was about 180 copies, of which 45 were “elite” ones, printed on parchment. The rest are published on first-class Italian paper.
In the process of working on the edition, Gutenberg workers cast about one hundred thousand letters in Gothic font.
Further work with the machine
In addition to the 42-line Bible, which several centuries later was called the Mazarin Bible, Johannes Gutenberg printed several other books on the first printing press. Among them is another Bible, published in 36 lines, various papal indulgences and a textbook on Latin grammar.
A few years later, the moneylender Fust sued Gutenberg’s printing press, photos of which are posted on the Internet. After this, the printer built a second press and published several more books.
The significance of Gutenberg's invention
The invention of the printing press had a huge resonance in the world:
- In the decades after Gutenberg invented the printing press, similar devices appeared in other European countries. By the end of the 15th century, in Germany alone there were more than 50 printing houses, where about two hundred professional printers worked, and more than 30 thousand different books were published throughout Europe.
- Scientists believe that it was the invention of movable type and the printing press that gave impetus to the Renaissance: with the development of printing, literacy also increased. In the 16th century, Martin Luther published half a million copies of his own translation of the Bible, with the expectation that everyone could read the book and draw their own conclusions.
- The invention of the press and the further development of printing led to the advent of printed pamphlets, leaflets, daily newspapers and, ultimately, the development of the modern press.
Video of Gutenberg's printing press in action
Until the 18th century, the printing press remained virtually unchanged. Gradually, the circulation of books increased, their production became cheaper, and the printed word became available to everyone.
What role do you think Gutenberg's printing press played in history? Share your opinion on
Typography- the process of creating printed materials. The term is usually used in a historical context.
China is considered the country where printing was invented. There in 1040-1048. a blacksmith named Pi Shen used a kind of typesetting process, carving hieroglyphs on blocks of clay, firing them, composing them into text on metal plate and attaching them to this plate with resin. However, clay letters wore out quickly and did not give a clear imprint. This method has not found widespread use, since Chinese writing is complex and consists of many characters. In 1392, the Koreans achieved great success by using copper type to reproduce texts. In 1403, Emperor Tai Tsung, in order to improve public education, ordered the printing of Korean books using such characters.
The history of European book printing dates back to the 15th century, when the prototypes of printed publications appeared. These first books, mostly primitive illustrations with small textual explanations for the illiterate consumer - “Bible of the Poor” (“Biblia pauperum”), “Mirror of Human Salvation” (“Speculum humanae salvationis”) or “The Art of Dying” (“Ars moriendi”) , were prints from solid boards (woodcuts).
Woodcut books were in wide circulation, but had an indirect relation to book printing itself, since printing from boards could not provide a large number of copies, and the wooden form quickly wore out. However, it is worth noting that books were published using woodcut printing until 1530.
Guttenberg and his followers
The invention of printing, i.e. printing from a set consisting of individual letters belongs to the German typographer from Mainz - Johann Gutenberg. He spent a significant part of his life in Strasbourg, where he was engaged in polishing semi-precious stones and mirrors. In 1448, Gutenberg appeared in Mainz, where, borrowing 150 guilders, he continued to work on casting type and constructing a printing press. The year of the first printed edition remains a matter of debate - dates are given from 1445 to 1447. The first editions, attributed to Johannes Gutenberg, were small calendar leaflets and textbooks.
The year of birth of European newspaper periodicals is considered to be 1609 (although some researchers call 1605). Its place of origin was Germany. The newspaper, which began with the words "Relation: Aller Furnemmen", was printed in January 1609 in the city of Strasbourg, and contained news from Cologne, Antwerp, Rome, Venice, Vienna and Prague. The editor-publisher of this weekly was the typographer Johann Carolus, who had previously been involved in compiling handwritten news sheets.
Also in 1609, “Avisa Relation oder Zeitung” appeared in Augsburg, another weekly newspaper published by Luca Schulte. The Italian word “avviso”, which found its way into the German press, indicates a genetic connection between the first German weekly newspapers and their Venetian prototypes. The format of German publications and the form of news presentation also resemble Venetian avvisi.
The first printed newspapers did not have a clearly defined name. The place of publication and the name of the editor-publisher were usually not indicated. The location of the news material depended not on the degree of importance of the event being described, but on the day the information was received. The news itself was practically not commented on and presented without any headings; political events were interspersed with not always reliable sensations.
Since 1609, weekly periodic printed publications began to quickly spread throughout Europe: in 1610, the printed weekly “Ordinari Wohenzeitung” began to be published in Basel, in 1615 Frankfurt am Main and Vienna joined Basel. In 1616, the newspaper appeared in Hamburg, in 1617 - in Berlin, in 1618 - in Amsterdam, in 1620 - in Antwerp, Magdeburg, Nuremberg, Rostock, Braunschweig, Cologne.
As for Cologne, in this city, starting from 1588, Michel von Aitzing published twice a year a selection of political and military events for six months under the name "Relatio Historica" ("Historical Bulletin") and sold his publication in the fall and spring in Frankfurt book fairs. In 1594, another publication appeared in Cologne, covering events over the past six months. “Mercurius Gallo Belgicus” (“Gallo-Belgian Mercury”) was published in Latin and was known far beyond the borders of Germany.
By 1630, weekly newspapers appeared in 30 European cities. The rapid spread of printed periodicals, and in the period from 1609 to 1700. In Germany alone, experts recorded the circulation of about 200 newspapers, which was explained by the increased level of printing, the growth of cities and the increased demand for various information from the urban population, the main consumer of this type of printed products.
However, the process of the appearance of the first newspapers in a number of countries was hindered by strict censorship procedures that regulated the appearance of printed materials. The widespread introduction of the institution of preliminary censorship, which appeared almost immediately after the invention of printing, became the state’s reaction to the uncontrolled spread of ideas, opinions and information.
It was the effect of censorship restrictions that led to the fact that the first printed newspapers in England and France appeared relatively late. Under conditions of severe censorship pressure, the role of a kind of “catalyst” for the emergence of English and French newspapers was played by Holland, which in the 17th century was the most liberal country in Europe.
A well-established printing business and skillful use of the advantages of “ideological liberalism” allowed Holland to make considerable profits from the sale of printed products to neighboring countries (England, France), where they were in great demand.
In September 1620, Caspar van Hilten (publisher and editor of the first Dutch newspaper "Courante uyt Italien, Duytsland, etc." - "News from Italy, Germany, etc.") began translating his own publication into French and distributing it to territory of France under the name "Courant d"Italic & d"Almaigne, etc." Apparently, van Hilten's venture was a commercial success.
In December of the same 1620, the Dutch engraver and cartographer Pieter van de Keere, who lived for several years in London, began publishing in Amsterdam on English language a newspaper that presented an almost literal translation of the Dutch "couranto". The first issue of the Keere edition, dated December 2, 1620, was published without a title and began quite remarkably: “The new typings out of Italic are not yet com” - “Fresh news from Italy has not yet been received.”
From the second issue this publication has the title “Corrant out of Italic, Germany, etc.” The news contained in the newspaper printed in Amsterdam could hardly be called fresh, but it gave readers an idea of the events taking place in Europe.
8. The emergence and development of the institution of censorship in Western Europe.
Censorship(lat. censura) - control by the authorities over the content and dissemination of information, printed materials, musical and stage works, works of fine art, films and photographs, radio and television broadcasts, websites and portals, in some cases also private correspondence, in order to limit or prevent dissemination of ideas and information considered undesirable by this government.
Censorship also refers to the bodies of secular or spiritual authorities that exercise such control.
According to Doctor of Historical Sciences T. M. Goryaeva [Note. 1], censorship arose at the moment when a group of people with power and property began to impose their will on others. The word “censorship” itself originated from ancestry. census, which meant in ancient Rome the periodic assessment of property to divide people into classes. The second meaning was associated with the division according to the right to enjoy the privileges of citizenship. Thus, according to Goryaeva, the ancient censor monitored the reliability of the political orientation of citizens.
Censorship became an attribute of state and religious power in the era of antiquity. The Brief Jewish Encyclopedia cites as an example the destruction of the scroll of Jeremiah's prophecies (608 - 598 BC) by the Jewish king Joachim. The Encyclopedia Britannica notes that in Athens (480 - 410 BC) the books of the philosopher Protagoras on the Gods were burned. Plato proposed introducing a set of prohibitions to protect people from harmful influence artistic works. He became the first thinker to substantiate the need to combine the artist's self-censorship with preliminary public censorship. Subsequently, censorship and repression of free thought became an integral part of the policies of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. In 213 BC. e. Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered the burning of all books except medical, agricultural and scientific ones to protect the empire from the perceived dangers of poetry, history and philosophy.
The first censorship lists date back to unacceptable apocryphal books, a list of which was compiled in 494 AD. e. under the Roman bishop (pope) Gelasius I. Preliminary censorship of books was first introduced in 1471 by Pope Sixtus IV. This was followed by similar decisions of Pope Innocent VIII (1487) and the Lateran Council (1512).
Later, under Pope Paul IV in 1557, the Index liborum prohibitorum was issued for the inquisitorial tribunals. This list was only canceled in 1966. And in 1571, Pope Pius V established the Congrecatio Indicis, according to which no Catholic, under pain of excommunication, could read or keep books that were not included in the list specified by the pope. Not only banned books, but also their authors were often burned at the stakes of religious censorship. The period of the Church Reformation was also characterized by intolerance of dissent. European society of that time was infected with aggressive xenophobia, and the authorities supported church censorship with administrative, judicial and forceful measures.
Subsequently, critics of censorship appeared, for example Pierre Abelard, Erasmus of Rotterdam and Michel Montaigne, who began to express doubts about its usefulness and expediency. Supporters of a strict form of censorship were Bernard of Clairvaux, Martin Luther and Tommaso Campanella. During the Enlightenment, philosophers and politicians proclaimed the ideas of freedom of speech, press and assembly. British philosopher Thomas Hobbes believed that if a church prohibition is not confirmed by state law, it is nothing more than advice. The poet John Milton, speaking in the English Parliament on June 16, 1643, for the first time specifically examined the features of censorship as a public institution. His critical treatise "Areopagitica" brought closer the abolition of preliminary censorship in England, which occurred in 1695.
9. The origin and development of political journalism and its role in public life.
PUBLISHING(from the word public, public) - that area of literature that deals with political, social issues with the aim of promoting certain views among a wide circle of readers, creating, shaping public opinion, and initiating certain political campaigns. The origin of journalism dates back, of course, to the era when mass readers first appeared, as well as the means to reproduce literary works in large quantities, i.e. to the beginning of the capitalist period in Europe, with the influx of new ideas corresponding to new social relations, with the development of urban life and trade, with the advent of a number of discoveries and inventions, and first of all - printing. Journalism is the child of the young, emerging bourgeoisie and is developing in Europe along with the development of bourgeois relations. Therefore, the birthplace of journalism is Italy, where, along with the first banks, the first newspapers appeared and where, during the Renaissance, the first literary form of journalism arose - pamphlet, i.e. a small pamphlet of brightly propaganda content, dealing with some topical, pressing issue or attacking particularly politically hated individuals and groups.
The end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times, the era of the collapse of feudalism, with its subsistence economy, economic and spiritual stagnation, is a deeply revolutionary era. And like all subsequent revolutionary eras, it creates extensive journalistic literature and, first of all, pamphlets. In addition to a number of Italian humanists who opposed the Catholic Church, especially
German humanists became famous at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries Erasmus of Rotterdam with his "Praise of Folly" and Reuchlin- with his “Letters of Dark People,” which ridiculed the ignorant monks, the most hated and reactionary social group of that time. The great social movement known as the Reformation, which stirred up huge masses of the lower strata of the population, first created journalism for the people, popular, rough in form, but often caustic and witty. Poisonous pamphlets of a polemical nature were exchanged between the leaders of the moderate reformation - Luther with the apostle of heretical communism and the leader of the peasant uprising of 1525 - Foma Muntzer, who in his brochures and appeals cursed both the clergy and the authorities.
The pamphlet developed especially during the era of the first English revolution of the 17th century. The great English poet Milton wrote a pamphlet for the first time in history in defense of freedom of the press. At the same time, the famous pamphlet “Killing - no murder” appeared, justifying the execution of the king. A number of pamphlets were written by the democrat Lilborn and the communists - the “true Levellers”. Since then, the pamphlet has become a favorite spiritual weapon of the English opposition parties and provided examples of high propaganda skills, especially during major political campaigns, such as the fight for electoral reform and the repeal of the Corn Laws in the first half of the 19th century, the fight for the liberation of Ireland or Chartism. The pamphlet (along with political newspapers) also achieved remarkable development during the era of the Great French Revolution, which opened with the pamphlet of Abbot Sieyès “What is the Third Estate”, reached its apogee in the newspapers of Marat and ended with Babeuf’s “Tribune of the People”. During the restoration era, the French Shchedrin became famous for his satirical pamphlets against the returning nobles and the royal administration - Paul Louis Courier. The pamphlets of socialists of the 30s and 40s are also remarkable. After that pamphlet everything
is increasingly being replaced in France by newspaper journalism.
In Germany, before the revolution of 1848, poets became famous as publicists Heine and critic Berne. But then he undoubtedly took first place Karl Marx, who, in his pamphlets and newspaper articles, knew how to combine brilliant literary talent, wit and caustic, killing sarcasm with deep and clear theoretical analysis. That is why his pamphlets are both propaganda and deeply scientific works. The first such work was the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” by Marx and Engels. Then Marx’s articles in the Neue Rheinische Gazeta, “The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte,” where, with devastating satire and mockery of the hero of the 1851 coup, a class explanation of the very possibility of this coup is given, and finally, “ Civil War in France,” the manifesto of the First International, issued immediately after the pacification of the Paris Commune.
Lassalle, who wrote his speeches and distributed them in the form of pamphlets, was also a great master of the scientific propaganda pamphlet in Germany.
The technique of piece printing for reproducing text, designs and images was widely used throughout East Asia. It originated in Ancient China as a method of printing on textiles and then on paper. The earliest surviving examples printed on fabric are Chinese and date back to no later than 220 AD. e. The closest Western examples date back to the 4th century and belong to Ancient Egypt era of Roman rule.
In East Asia
The earliest surviving prints come from China during the Han Dynasty (before 220 AD), which were used to print three-color images of flowers on silk, and the earliest early example paper engravings, also Chinese, date back to the mid-seventh century.
In the ninth century, printing on paper was already professionally practiced; it was from this period that the first surviving complete printed book- Diamond Sutra (now in the British Library). In the tenth century, 400 thousand copies of some sutras and paintings were printed, and Confucian classics were published. An experienced printer could print up to 2,000 sheets of double pages in one day.
From China, printing spread to Korea and Japan, which used Chinese logograms; Chinese printing techniques were also used in Turpan and Vietnam using other scripts. However, unlike another invention - paper, the technique of printing was never borrowed by the Islamic world.
In the Middle East
Piece printing on fabric appeared in Roman Egypt by the fourth century. Woodcut, called "tarsh" in Arabic, was developed in Arab Egypt in the 9th-10th centuries, used mainly for prayers and written amulets. There is some reason to believe that these prints (engravings) were made from non-wooden materials, perhaps tin, lead or clay. The methods used seem to have had very little influence outside the Muslim world. Although Europe adopted woodcut printing from the Muslim world, initially for textile imprinting, the technique of metal woodblock printing remained unknown in Europe. Woodblock printing later fell into disuse in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was adopted from China.
In Europe
For the first time in Christian Europe, the technique of imprinting on fabric appeared around 1300. Images printed on cloth for religious purposes could be quite large and complex, and when paper became relatively easily available, around 1400, small engravings of religious themes and playing cards, printed on paper. Mass production Printed paper products began around 1425.
Technology
Printing was carried out as follows: on wooden trestles, on which raised letters were cut out, liquid paint, then a sheet of paper was placed on top and rubbed with a soft brush. This method of printing, which was also used in the Middle Ages by Dutch printers on wooden printing boards, was preserved in China until the beginning of the 20th century; An attempt by Jesuit missionaries in the 17th century to carve words out of copper did not take off.
Typeface
The history of book printing in the modern sense of the word begins from the moment when metal, movable, convex letters, carved in a mirror image, began to be produced. Lines were typed from them and printed on paper using a press.
In Europe, typeface appeared in the second third of the 15th century, and almost all researchers attribute it to the German Johann Gutenberg. Johann Mentelin in Strasbourg, who had a printing house already in 1458, and Pfister in Bamberg, previously considered the first printers, must be recognized as students of Gutenberg. Almost all Western European nations challenged the Germans for the honor of inventing printing. The Dutch most convincingly defended their claims, citing the invention of printing by Laurens Janszoon Coster.
The testimony of contemporaries speaking in favor of Gutenberg includes the indication of Peter Schaeffer, Fust's son-in-law and successor of his work: in the 1468 edition of Justinian's Institutes, he points to Gutenberg and Fust as the first printers. Moved by a kindred feeling, he probably attributed to Fust the honor of the invention belonging to Guttenberg alone. In 1472, Wilhelm Fichet, rector of the University of Paris, in a letter to Robert Hagen said: “It is reported that not far from the city of Mainz there was a certain John Bonemontan (Gutenberg), who was the first to invent the art of printing.” Matthew Palmerius, in the continuation of Eusebius's Chronicle, published in 1483 in Venice, indicates that “the art of printing books was invented in 1440 by Gutenberg in Mainz.” Finally, John Schaeffer, son of Peter Schaeffer, in the dedication to the 1505 translation of Titus Livy, points to Gutenberg as the first printer, although in other places he attributes this invention to Fust.
Early printed books
It was in this book, which had the full title "Lettera Apologetica dell'Esercitato accademico della Crusca contenente la difesa del libro intitolato Lettere di una Peruana per rispetto alla supposizione de" Quipu scritta dalla Duchessa di S*** e dalla medesima fatta pubblicare", used 40 "key words" of the supposedly ancient Incan writing system. Key words in a pile were colored different colors and were shaped like a circle. The color printing method was unknown at that time and was invented by Raimondo himself.
Apparently, it was Madame de Graffiny (Countess S***) and Prince Raimondo de Sangro (who was an academician de la Cruz) who had Odriozola in mind.
In Europe, he invented typography from typesetting. This meant that letters, numbers and punctuation marks were cast from metal and could be used repeatedly. And although a similar system was known to the Chinese around 1400 BC, it did not take root there due to the presence of several hundred written characters. And the method was forgotten. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg began printing texts in Germany in a new way. At first these were calendars or dictionaries, and in In 1452 he printed the first Bible. It later became known throughout the world as the Gutenberg Bible.
How did the first printing press work?
Individual printed characters, letters, were attached to solid metal in a mirror image. The typesetter put them into words and sentences until the page was ready. Printing ink was applied to these symbols. Using a lever, the page was pressed firmly against the paper placed underneath it. On the printed page, the letters were in in the right order. After printing the letters in in a certain order were folded and stored in the typesetting cash register. This way the typesetter could quickly find them again. Today, a book is usually designed on a computer: the text is typed and sent directly from the computer to print.
Why was the invention of printing important?
Thanks to new printing methods, it was possible to print a lot of texts in a short time, so suddenly many people had access to books. They were able to learn to read and develop spiritually. Church leaders no longer determined who could gain access to knowledge. Opinions were disseminated through books, newspapers or leaflets. And they were discussed. This freedom of thought was completely new for those times. Many rulers were afraid of her and ordered books to be burned. And even today this happens with some dictators: they arrest writers and journalists and ban their books.
All books printed before January 1, 1501 are called INCUNABULAMI. This word is translated as “cradle,” that is, the infancy of book printing.
Few incunabula have survived to this day. They are preserved in museums and largest libraries in the world. The incunabula are beautiful, their fonts are elegant and clear, the text and illustrations are placed very harmoniously on the pages.
Their example shows that a book is a work of art.
One of the largest collections of incunabula in the world, about 6 thousand books, is stored in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg. The collection is located in a special room, the so-called “Faust’s office,” recreating the atmosphere of a Western European monastery library of the 15th century.
Did you know that...
In ancient Rus' did they write on birch bark? So called outer part birch bark, consisting of thin translucent layers, easily separated from each other.
The first typewriter was made in the USA in 1867?
Is the number of books published all over the world growing year by year? True, this only applies to developed countries.
Check yourself.
1. In Germany, in the city of Strasbourg, in the central square there is a monument to Johannes Gutenberg. For what merits did grateful descendants perpetuate the memory of this German master?
2. Why are printed books from the 15th century called incunabula?
3. What new elements appeared in printed books in the 15th century?
4. Explain the meaning of the following concepts using reference books.
The Big Encyclopedic Dictionary (any edition) will help you
letter
typeset printing (typing)
font
printing house
engraving
Red line
Watch the cartoon about Johann Guttenberg:
http://video.mail.ru/mail/glazunova-l/4260/4336.html
An important milestone in the development of writing and literature was the printing of books in Rus'. With the development of statehood, the issue of lack of books became acute. There were written samples, but their creation took a lot of time.
In Europe during this period (mid-16th century) printing presses already existed. understood the invaluable role of books in the process of state formation. He contributed to the founding of the first printing house in Moscow.
The most educated people of that time were recruited to work on the first printed edition. The goal of the young king was to unite a large number of Orthodox peoples on one territory and into one state. There was a need for widespread church and secular education, therefore, the priesthood and educators needed a high-quality printed publication.
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The first Russian printed book - the history of creation
Preparations for printing the original source of knowledge took a total of a decade. The creation of the first copy of printed art was preceded by a long construction and arrangement of the printing house.
In 1563, the printer and inventor Ivan Fedorov and his faithful friend and student Pyotr Mstislavets began printing a unique book that had no analogues at that time, called “The Apostle.”
The printers spent 12 months working on the first edition. Printer Ivan Fedorov put into his brainchild all the knowledge and skills that he acquired throughout his life. The first non-manuscript copy turned out to be truly a masterpiece.
The weighty volume was framed in wood, which the creators covered with thin leather with amazing gold embossing. Large capital letters were decorated with unprecedented herbs and flowers.
The first edition was dated March 1, 1564. Later, this date began to be considered the year of the founding of the Russian book printing. IN modern history Russian state Orthodox Book Day is celebrated on March 14th. "Apostle" survived until the 21st century unchanged, and is located in the Moscow historical museum.
The beginning of book printing in Russia
As soon as the first book of the Moscow printing house “Apostol” (“Acts and Epistles of the Apostles”) was published, the Old Russian pioneer printers began to create a new church publication called “Chasovnik”. This work of printed art took not a year, but only a few weeks.
In parallel with the creation of church books, work was underway on the first Russian textbook “ABC”. The children's book appeared in 1574.
Thus, in the 16th century, book printing was born and established in Rus', and the first non-manuscript church books appeared. The creation of a children's textbook was a very important stage in the development of Slavic writing and literature.
Who printed the first books in Russia
The founder of book printing in Rus' was the inventor Ivan Fedorov. The man, even by modern standards, was very educated and enthusiastic. The man was educated at a university in Krakow (now the territory of modern Poland). In addition to his native language, he spoke two more languages - Latin and Ancient Greek.
The man was well versed in carpentry, painting, and foundry crafts. He himself cut and smelted matrices for letters, and made bindings for his books. These skills helped him fully master the book printing process. Nowadays, mention of the first Russian book printing is often associated with the name of Ivan Fedorov.
The first printing house in Rus' - its creation and development
In 1553, the first printing house was founded in Moscow by order of Tsar Ivan the Terrible. The printing house, as the printing house was called in ancient times, was located next to the Kremlin, not far from the St. Nicholas Monastery, and was built with monetary donations from the ruler himself.
Church deacon Ivan Fedorov was placed at the head of the printing house. It took 10 years to equip the building of the ancient printing house and create printing equipment. The printing house was made of stone, and was popularly called the “printing hut.”
The first printed publication “Apostle” was created here, and later the first “ABC” and “Book of Hours” were printed. Already in the 17th century, more than 18 book titles were published.
Later, printer Ivan Fedorov and his assistant, due to the slander of ill-wishers, will be forced to flee Moscow, fleeing the wrath of the tsar. But the pioneer printers will be able to save the equipment and take it with them outside the Principality of Moscow. The first printing house on Nikolskaya Street will be burned by book fighters.
Soon Ivan Fedorov will open a new printing house in Lvov, where he will publish several more editions of the Apostle, in the introduction to which the printer will talk about the persecution of ill-wishers and envious people.
Ivan Fedorov's first printing press
The first equipment for book printing was extremely simple: a machine and several typesetting cash desks. The basis of the ancient printing press was screw press. Ivan Fedorov’s machine has survived to this day.
You can see this value, touch history, and breathe in hoary antiquity at the Lviv Historical Museum. The weight of the machine is about 104 kg. The font was designed to resemble written letters. It was close to hand writing that was understandable to ordinary Russian people. The slant to the right is maintained, the letters are straight, same size. Margins and distances between lines are strictly observed. The title and capital letters were printed in red, and the main text in black.
The use of two-color printing is the invention of Ivan Fedorov himself. Before him, no one in the world had used multiple colors on one printed page. The quality of printing and materials is so impeccable that the first printed book, “The Apostle,” has survived to this day and is in the Moscow Historical Museum.
In the 16th century there were two significant events for the history of Moscow, and subsequently for the history of Rus' - the construction of St. John the Blessed Cathedral in the capital and the creation of a printing press by Ivan Fedorov.
The first textbooks in Rus'
The development of education was important for the formation of the Russian state. Books copied by hand differed big amount errors and distortions. Their authors were not always well educated themselves. Therefore, to teach children to read and write, well-readable, understandable, non-handwritten textbooks were needed.
The first book for teaching children to read and write was the printed volume “The Book of Hours” by Ivan Fedorov. For quite a long time, children learned to read from this book. Two copies of this publication have survived to this day. One volume is in Belgium, the other is in the Leningrad Library. Later, “ABC” will be published in Moscow, which became the first textbook for children. Today, this rare copy of ancient printing is located in the United States.
Tsar Ivan the Terrible, despite all the ambiguous attitudes towards him, understood that it was impossible to build a strong, developed state without smart, educated people. It is necessary to keep up with the times and keep up with advanced countries. The source of true truthful knowledge at all times has been and will be the book. Only reading, literate, educated people will be able to build an advanced power and introduce technologies in accordance with the requirements of the time.
The founder of book printing in Rus', Ivan Fedorov, was a genius of his time, who was able to move Russia from the point of ignorance and feeblemindedness, and direct it along the path of enlightenment and development. Despite the disgrace and persecution that befell him, Ivan Fedorov did not abandon his life’s work and continued to work in a foreign land. Its first printed editions became the basis of writing and literature of the 16th and 17th centuries.
