They include -ov-, -en-, -in-, -och-, -ich-, -nich-, -l-. However, -j-, used between the vowels of neighboring morphemes, in its origin is a so-called intervocalic consonant, which since ancient times has developed from the confluence of two vowel sounds. From the point of view of word formation and morphemic analysis, it is very important to determine the relationship of interfixes to morphemes. A characteristic feature of interfixes is their lack of meaning. Classifying them as morphemes would contradict the generally accepted understanding of the morpheme as a significant unit of language. Affixoids The term “affixoid” denotes such word-forming parts of words that occupy an intermediate position between root and affixal morphemes. Affixoids are morphemes of a transitive type. They are affix-like, but are not identical to either affixes or roots. These, for example, include: water- (reindeer breeder, livestock breeder, vegetable breeder, horse breeder); Ved - (linguist, local historian, bibliologist); res- (stone cutter, bread cutter, glass cutter), etc. Each such affixoid forms a completely independent, fairly large and very productive word-formation type. In this sense, affixoids are very close to affixes. This is confirmed by the synonymous use of affixoids and affixes in the Russian language, for example: Slavic scholar and Slavist, gardener and gardener, wavy and wavy. Performing the function of affixes, affixoids do not lose their semantic connections with cognate words. For comparison, the following examples can be given: the affixoid -hod- in the words motor ship, all-terrain vehicle, snowmobile and the words walk, walk, walk, enter, etc., -nose- in the words honey plant, flower stalk and the words wear, sock, bring. Affixoids are divided into two groups: suffixoids and prefixoids. Suffixoids include root morphemes used as suffixes: -shaped- (bowl-shaped, gaseous, needle-shaped); -love- (heat-lover, water-lover, dry-lover): -car- (diesel locomotive, steam locomotive, heavy locomotive). Prefixoids are root morphemes that use prefixes as functions. For example, semi- (half measure, crescent, short fur coat, low shoes); against- (gas mask, illegal). The ability/inability of a particular morpheme to act in the modern Russian language both as a service and as a root is the main indicator of the distinction between affixoids and affixes. Materially expressed and zero morphemes (inflections, suffixes) Morphemes, according to the method of their transmission, are divided into two groups: 1) materially expressed and 2) zero. The prefix and root are always expressed materially. Inflections and suffixes can be either materially expressed or null. 22 Materially expressed inflections exist in the Russian language in the form of a phoneme or phonemic combinations: stola, frosty, write. The words day, notebook, nes have zero inflection, which can be identified by comparison with other forms of the same word (cf. dn’a, tetrad’i, nes). Foreign language nouns ending in a vowel sound, such as cafe, menu, stew; adverbs, state category words, adjectives in simple form comparative degree (more beautiful), gerunds, adverbs and words of the category of state in the simple form of the comparative degree (faster, colder) are unchangeable parts of speech, unchangeable forms of words, therefore they do not and cannot have endings. Zero suffixes are available in the form of the imperative mood of the verb: throw, read (cf. write, knit). The zero suffix is found in the masculine singular form of the past tense of some verbs: frozen^ – ٱfrozen, carried^– ٱ carried, wet^ – ٱwet. Homonymy and synonymy of morphemes Morphemes, like words, can be related to each other in terms of homonymy and synonymy. Synonymous morphemes have the same meaning, but different phonetic design. In the Russian language, synonymous suffixes are often found (cf.: й - еск (enemy - enemy); at - ast (nosy - nosaty). These are single-root parallel formations that differ stylistically. Suffixes much more often function in different cortical forms. Thus, among the nouns there are synonymous suffixes with the meaning “the name of a male person by occupation or profession”: shchik (chik), -ar, -ant, -ator, -ist, -er (mason, innovator , figurant, guitarist, prompter, goalkeeper).Inflections can also be synonymous, for example: -a, -i (islands, inhabitants). Formative prefixes that serve to form aspectual forms of verbs also enter into synonymy relations, for example: with , by, on (make, build, draw). Homonymous morphemes sound and are written the same, but have different semantics. Thus, the suffixes are homonymous: -in1- (denotes animal meat - lamb); -in2- (single object – straw); -in3- (has an increasing meaning – domina). Homonymous prefixes function among verbs, for example: po1- (denotes the beginning of an action - to fly), po2- (species prefix - to build), po3- (the action is performed over a period of time - to fly). Homonymy is widely represented among the roots: water - to drive, drawing - rice grower. 23 Word-forming, form-forming and syncretic affixes Word-forming affixes are prefixes, suffixes and postfixes that serve to form new words: language - proto-language; soup - soup; to achieve - to achieve. Formative affixes are those that serve to form the form of a word: smart - smarter, smarter (with the help of -ee-, -eysh- simple forms of the comparative and superlative degrees of the adjective are formed); throw – throw, brew – brew (suffixes -a-, -i-, -iva- form species forms verbs); run – ran (using the suffix -т- the infinitive form is formed, -л- is the past tense form of the verb); chitjut – reading, read – reading (the suffixes -уш-, -вш- form the forms of active participles). In some cases it is difficult to draw the line between these two types of affixes, for example: in which cases is the postfix -xia formative, and in which is it word-forming. In order not to be mistaken in the function of such affixes, you need to consult an explanatory dictionary. Syncretic affixes are those morphemes that simultaneously perform formative and word-forming functions, for example: write - rewrite, sign (when prefixes are added, the lexical meaning words and its form: write – nesov. view, rewrite - owls. view). Inflections can also be syncretic, cf.: spouse - spouse. Spouse. 1. Same as husband. 2. pl. Husband and wife. Spouse (obsolete, now official and simple). The same as wife (in 1 digit). (Quoted from: Ozhegov, S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language / S.I. Ozhegov. - M., 1972 - P. 717.). With the help of inflection -a, not only a new word is formed, its form also changes. This morpheme indicates that this is a feminine noun, stands in nominative case singular. Affixes are regular and irregular, productive and unproductive. Regular affixes are constantly reproduced in words and form certain word-forming or formative models, for example: suffixes -tel-, -n-(-y) (teacher, lecturer; frosty, cold) ; prefixes not-, from- (ugly, not bad, state); inflections -y, -eat, -ish (reading, reading). Irregular affixes in the composition of words are rare, for example: the suffix -k- with the meaning of action, standing out only in the word fight, inflection -m, found only in the words dam, eat, create. So, when we talk about the regularity/irregularity of affixes, we mean how often or rarely they currently appear in words. When determining the productivity/unproductivity of affixes, we pay attention to their different productivity in the formation of new words or forms. 24 Productive are those affixes that serve to form numerous groups of words in the modern Russian language, for example, the suffixes -ist-, -nik-, denoting a male person by occupation (machinist, defender); suffixes -sk-, -n- when forming relative and qualitative adjectives (Gorno-Altai, harmful); prefixes without-, non- (safe, timid). There is a close connection between the concepts of regular/irregular, productive/unproductive affixes: all irregular affixes are unproductive, and regular ones can be both productive and unproductive. The question of the degree of segmentation of Russian words All words used in the modern Russian language are divided into two large classes: indivisible and segmentable. Indivisible ones include, for example, highway, coat, khaki, where, but, over, let, only, ay, ha-ha, etc. These are unchangeable, non-derivative words. All derived unchangeable words belong to divisible words: twice, cold, scary, incredible, etc. All modifiable words (both non-derivatives and derivatives) belong to the segmented ones: a) non-derivatives: -steppe-, hot-iy, pis-a-t, tr-i; b) derivatives: nad-pi-a-t, highway-j-n-y. Among dichotomous words, 3 classes can be distinguished: 1) words that include free roots and repeating affixes; 2) words including associated roots (radixoids) and repeating affixes; 3) words containing associated unique roots (uniradixoids). 1. Class I words are best divided - chair - chair-chik, youth - youth-n-y. Also, series of correlations are called word-formation squares. According to the terminology of the famous linguist Yanko-Trinovskaya, such words have complete free articulation. 2. Words with related roots included in double rows of relationships also form a word-formation square. to agitate | agitation | to agitate | agitator These words are divided worse than words with associated roots. According to the terminology of N.A. Yanko-Trinitskaya, they have complete connected articulation. 3. Words that have unifixes or uniradixoids are included in one series of relationships - words with the same stem or words with the same affix - and have residual articulation, since one of the parts of such words is distinguished not by its 25 relationship with the same partly in other words, but as a remainder from the selection of the neighboring morph. 1) pop-adya: pop = general-sha: general 2) bel’-os(y) : white(y) 3) buzhen-in(a) – cf. horse - kon-in(a) Words that have residual division do not form a word-forming square. So, the division of words depends on the following factors: 1) the stem is used free or bound; 2) the affix is repeatable or unique; 3) the affix is similar or dissimilar in meaning to other affixes of the given language; 4) the associated root is repeatable or unique; 5) the affix is used or not used with free roots. It is necessary to distinguish between the concept of articulation of a word and articulation of the base of a word. Like words, stems can be articulated or indivisible. Unsegmented stems include stems containing only the root morph: woof, salt. Articulate stems are those that, in addition to the root, also have an affixal morph or affixal morphs: frost-n(y), za-moroz-i(t), za-moroz-k(i). The boundaries between articulated and indivisible bases are very fluid. Articulated bases can turn into inarticulate ones. And vice versa, indivisible bases can become divisible. Thus, at first the basis of the foreign language word “hippodrome” was not defined. In this stem, the suffix -drome was not distinguished. In modern Russian, this suffix is full-fledged and actively participates in the formation of new words, cf. autodrome, tankodrom, airfield, velodrome, hippodrome. This can be said about the suffix -tek: library, card index, film library. Changes in the composition and structure of words. Simplification, re-decomposition and complication of the base, decorrelation of morphemes. The morphemic composition of a word is not unchanged. In the process of historical development of the Russian language, the structure of some words has changed. There are several types of changes in the morphemic composition of a word; the most important and most common are simplification and re-decomposition. Simplification is the transformation of a derived stem into a non-derivative one due to the fusion of a suffix and a prefix with a root. Thus, the words rylo, soap (cf. dig, wash) included the suffix -l, which was used to form substantive nouns with the meaning of an instrument of action; in the words fir, gift, the suffix -r was distinguished (cf. drink, give); the words pin, tent, brisk had the suffix k (cf.: mace, chamber, battle); in the words bag, top, the suffix -ok was isolated (cf.: fur, top). These suffixes merged with the roots, and derived stems turned into non-derivative ones. 26 Some words contain prefixes that merged with the roots to form non-derivative stems. For example, the prefix ob- in the words shell, image, fainting (cf.: procrastination, strike, fool); prefix v- in the word taste (cf.: bite, piece); for- in words protection (cf: shield). The process of simplification occurs for two reasons: 1) due to the loss of correlative generating stems or related words from the dictionary; 2) due to the discrepancy in the meaning of the derivative and the generating base. For example, the stems in the words valor, greedy, hummock, horror, slob have become non-derivative. In the derivative stem, a completely new meaning can develop (cf.: porch and wing, belly and life, happiness and part). Another important historical process is re-decomposition. Re-decomposition is the departure of the sound element of one morpheme to the neighboring morpheme. As a result of re-decomposition, the boundaries between morphemes move, while the derived stem retains its segmentation. Re-decomposition can occur at the junction of the generating base and the suffix (cf.: dwelling - historically dwelling, from obsolete lived). The process of re-decomposition is also observed between the formative base and the prefix: in it, to it, where n was part of the preposition-prefix vn. Complication is the selection of affixes in a previously non-derivative stem. This process is often characteristic of words of foreign language origin (cf.: the word umbrella came into Russian from the Dutch language. By analogy with Russian words (house - little house, key - key), the diminutive suffix -ik began to be distinguished in this word Decorrelation of morphemes is a change in the nature or meaning of morphemes and their relationship in a word while maintaining the division of the word, number and order of morphemes. For example, in the verb scold the suffix -a- from a word-forming one has turned into a simple indicator of the verb class. Diffusion is interpenetration morphemes while maintaining their clear independence.This process is observed at the junction of a prefix and a root or a root and a suffix (for example. , bathroom, porcupine). Substitution is the result of replacing one morpheme with another, and precisely replacement. This process is observed in the word “pugach” (from frighten in the meaning of “scream”, about the cry of an eagle owl), currently associated with the verb “scare” in the meaning of “instill fear”. WORD FORMATION Methods of word formation The concept of “word formation method” has different content in synchronous and diachronic terms. In diachronic word formation, this concept serves to answer the question by what means, in what way, a derivative word is formed; in synchronous - to the question by what means the derivational meaning is expressed. In synchronous word formation there are two main methods of word formation: affixal and non-affixal, in diachronic there are four: morphological, morphological-syntactic, lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic. The essence of the lexical-semantic method is that words are not created anew, but their semantics changes. IN this method There are three main types: 1) the formation of homonyms by breaking up polysemantic words (language 1, language 2); 2) rethinking the semantics of words already existing in the Russian language (MTS - machine and tractor station and MTS - mobile telephone network); 3) the transition of borrowed proper names into common nouns (mackintosh, x-ray). The lexical-syntactic method is the formation of a derivative word from a whole combination: today - today. Under morphological – in a syntactic way the formation of new words is understood as a result of the transition of words from one part to another (the adverb around turned into the preposition around; the adjective military into the noun military). Most in a productive way word formation is morphological with its various varieties: suffixal, prefixal, prefix-suffixal, zero suffixation, various types of abbreviation. For example, the suffix type is to have breakfast, the prefix type is ultrasound. Word-formation semantics in the Russian language Word-formation motivation is the relationship between two words that have the following characteristics: 1) both words have the same root; 2) the meaning of one of the words or is completely included in the meaning of the other (house - house, " little house") or identical to the lexical meaning of another, but either the syntactic positions of these words are different (this includes pairs like run - run, fast - quickly, formed by words of different parts of speech; the second member of these pairs is a syntactic derivative), or these words are different stylistically (with identical syntactic positions): book – book, book; thief - thief; hostel - hostel. In this case, there are suffixes of stylistic modification. In the case of multiple meanings of words, motivational relationships are established between their individual meanings, for example: to rule - to become right (politically reactionary). Motivation relations are established between members of the same word-formation nest - a set of words with the same root. Not all relationships between nest members are relationships of word-formation motivation. Relations between words with the same root, each of which has both something in common with another word and different components of meaning, are not, according to the above definition, relations of motivation. Thus, the words domik (“small house”) and domishche (“ big house") are not related to motivation, because each of them has meaning components (“big”, “small”) that are absent in the other word. A word-forming formant is the smallest word-forming means (means) in formal and semantic terms among those means by which a word differs from the words that are in a motivating relationship with it. Thus, the verb starch is connected by motivational relations both with the verb starch and with the noun starch. It differs from the first word by the presence of the prefix po-, from the second by the prefix po- and the suffix -i-. The formant of the word starch is the prefix po- - the smallest word-forming device in formal and semantic terms from among those means (po- and po- + -i-) by which the verb starch differs from the words starch and starch, which are in a motivational relationship with it . The most common word-forming devices that form formants are affixes or combinations of affixes in various types of affix word formation. In addition, in Russian word formation, the following word-formation devices are used as formants: when substantivizing an adjective and participle - a system of inflections and a motivated word (noun), which is part of the system of inflections of a motivating (adjective or participle) - a system of inflections one - th grammatical gender or only plural ; when adding: 1) a fixed order of components; 2) a single main emphasis, mainly on the supporting component; with the abbreviation type of word formation: a) arbitrary (indifferent to morphemic division) truncation of stems included in the motivating word combination, the last of which may not be abbreviated; b) single stress; c) a certain system of inflections in accordance with the assignment of an abbreviation to one of the types of noun declension. The meaning expressed using a derivational formant is called derivational meaning. One of the central concepts is the concept of word-formation type. “Word-formation type is a scheme (formula) for the structure of derived words, characterized by the commonality of three elements: 1) the part of speech of the generating stem; 2) the semantic relationship between derivatives and generators; 3) the formal relationship between derivatives and generators, namely: the commonality of the method of word formation, and for affixal methods, the identity of the affix” [cit. by: Zemskaya, E.A. Modern Russian language. Word formation / E.A. Zemskaya. – M.: Education, 1973. – P. 182]. Types of word-formation motivation 29 The relationship in the word-formation nest between motivating and motivated words can differ in a number of features, on the basis of which several types of motivation can be distinguished. Direct - indirect motivation Direct motivation is a motivational relationship between two words, one of which differs from the other in only one formant. Indirect motivation is a motivational relationship between two words, one of which differs from the other by a set of formants. Of two motivations: 1) to starch - to starch; 2) starch - the first is direct, and the second is indirect. The description of the structure of words was usually carried out on the basis of direct motivations, but it is also necessary to study indirect motivations. The existence of synchronous relationships between motivated words and indirectly motivating words (the so-called “inter-step connections of words”) is evidenced by a number of important phenomena of a diachronic nature – the emergence of new affixes and even new types of word formation. It is known that the verbal suffixes -nicha- and -stva- arose due to indirect motivation in verbs such as fashionable, stubborn, formed with the help of the suffixes -a-, -ova- from nouns with the suffixes -nik- and -stv-: fashionable - to be fashionable, stubbornness - to be stubborn. Similar processes were accompanied by the emergence of mixed types of word formation: prefix-suffix, prefix-suffix-postfix. So, not earlier than the 18th century. A prefix-suffix-postfixal type arose in the Russian language, which in modern Russian includes the formation of a number of denominal verbs with various prefixes, the suffix -i- and the postfix -sya (to say goodbye). There are indirect motivations that have no analogue among direct motivations. They are not included in the system of word-formation types and are called unplanned indirect motivations. The members of such motivations differ from each other by a set of formants, which never functions as a single formant: for example, along with pairs like moisture - moisten in the language there are no pairs in which the motivated and the directly motivating would differ from each other by the segment -not- ( t): all motivated verbs starting with -net are directly motivated by adjectives starting with -n- (y): wet - to moisten, dirty - to get dirty, therefore they contain the suffix -e-, and not -not-. The segment -not-, which distinguishes words like moisture - to moisten, is not a word-formation affix, does not function as a word-formation formant capable of participating in one act of word formation. Initial - non-initial motivations Initial motivation is motivation with an unmotivated word, non-initial motivation is motivation with a motivated word. So, of the two motivations of the word 30, purify: 1) pure - to purify, 2) to clean - to purify - the first motivation is the original one, the second one is non-original. Initial and non-initial motivations can be both direct and indirect. Of particular interest is the initial indirect motivation: it is on its basis that new affixes and types of word formation most often arise, since the entire part of the basis of the motivated word, different from the root, begins to be perceived as a single word-formation formant, and the motivating basis of the word becomes equal to its root (fashionable, stubborn). Unmotivated words that act as motivating words are the beginning of a word-formation nest. Unique - non-unique motivations Non-unique motivations are motivations of the same word in several words that differ from the unmotivated by an equal number of formants: unequal inequality equality All other motivations are unique, for example: table - table. Words that have more than one motivation can be interpreted in synchronic terms as simultaneously referring to different types word formation. Thus, the word gloomy can be considered both as a prefixal formation, motivated by the word cheerfully, and as a suffixal formation, motivated by the word gloomy. Currently, in the modern Russian language there are a large number of groups of words of a certain morphemic composition that have more than one direct motivation. These include: 1) words that simultaneously relate to several types of word formation: a) prefixal / suffixal (insensitive – sensitive and insensitive); b) compounding / prefixal (down - to the bottom and to - down); 2) words belonging to the same type of word formation. These include verbs not perfect form type to discard, push out, motivated by two prefixed verbs of the perfect form, each of which, in turn, is motivated by unprefixed verbs that are in the following relationships with each other: a) correlation by aspect (a perfect verb often has meaning of one-time occurrence: throw - throw away throw throw - throw away b) correlation by frequency and direction of action (these include verbs with the semantics “movement in space”): roll - roll in 31
1. By the nature of the meaning: all morphemes, according to the nature of their meaning, are divided into two large classes - lexical (material) and grammatical. Grammatical ones, in turn, are divided into derivational and relational.
A. Lexical (substantial) morphemes have a basic material meaning that is associated with a separate concept. Behind this concept is the idea of some object, property or quality. Carrier real value is the root morpheme (or root).
B. Grammatical have grammatical Z.
2. Classification of grammatical morphemes by function:
A. Derivational morphemes(lat. derivati- lead) have a word-forming Z. Therefore, their main function is to form new words with a new lexical Z. Therefore, they are also called word-forming morphemes. In the Russian language, word-forming morphemes include prefixes, suffixes and postfixes.
B. Relational morphemes (relati- attitude) form syntactic morphemes (in Russian these are mainly endings) that connect words in a sentence. Relational morphemes perform the role of inflection (or form-building), therefore they are sometimes called inflectional or form-building.
Relational morphemes serve to form the same word. These include suffixes and prefixes, and mainly endings. Since Russian is an inflectional language, relational meaning is expressed mainly in endings.
3. By role and place in the word:
According to their place in the word, all morphemes are divided into root And affixal. The root contains the main material meaning; affixes are attached to the root and specify its meaning. The lexical meaning of a word is formed from the totality of the meanings of the root and word-forming affixes. With the help of affixes, new words and word forms are formed.
Affixes (service morphemes, Latin affixum “attached”) in relation to the root are divided into:
1. Suffixes.
2. Postfixes.
3. Consoles.
4. Endings.
5. Interfixes.
For classification, see the end of the topic.
By the number of semes in terms of content:
Monosemic (beige l— Z past. vr.) and polysemous (ran A- Z zh.r., units).
By the nature of the formal expression:
Materially expressed and zero.
Not all linguists are inclined to highlight null suffixes.
The reasons for this are as follows:
1) The tradition, first of all, of school teaching, when the teacher is faced with the task of giving a minimum of information from grammar.
2) It is quite difficult to identify a zero suffix (it is necessary to take into account both the formation and the entire word-formation system of the language).
3) In some cases, scientists go even further, arguing that zero ending doesn't exist either. They reason like this: if a morpheme has a plan of content and a plan of expression, then the absence of any plan indicates the absence of the entire morpheme. (For example, the word horse there is no ending, because there is no phoneme indicating its presence, i.e. there is no plan for expressing the morpheme). However, in this case it remains unclear what the means of expression is grammatical meanings units and Im.p., which in Russian are expressed using endings.
The logic for highlighting the null suffix and null ending should be like this. It is necessary to take into account: a) the first factor if we are faced with the task of identifying formative suffix and ending, and b) both the first and second factors, if we are looking for derivational suffix.
First factor. If the analyzed word has a meaning that is usually conveyed in Russian using a materially expressed morpheme, but the morpheme does not have its own expression in the analyzed word, therefore, the word contains a zero morpheme.
Second factor. The word d.b. a word with the same root, simpler in meaning.
Let's look at both cases with examples. First we'll find formative null suffix.
Word forms past tense verbs carried, grew, carried away, dried up contain a zero suffix, since Z is past. time is always expressed using the suffix -l- (beige l, jump l, found out l ). In addition, we can do exactly what we do to find the zero ending - change the word, in in this case by birth: carried, grew, carried away, dried up. The reason for the appearance of a zero formative suffix in this form goes back to the fall of reduced ones, as a result of which a combination of consonants uncharacteristic for the Russian language was successfully resolved by the loss of one of them (Cf. historical: carried, grew, carried away, dried up). The same logic is used when selecting zero ending.
In word forms imperative mood For some verbs, identifying the zero suffix turns out to be more difficult, since changing the word will not give us the desired value. To do this, it is necessary to take into account that in Russian Z commands. mood is expressed using the formative suffix - And-, which is omitted in some verbs. Wed. forms with a materially expressed suffix: write, fly, teach, jump, shorten etc. And a group of verbs with a zero formative suffix: these include forms of unproductive verbs be, pour, drink, become and productive 1st, 2nd, 3rd grades find out, save(1st prod. class), own it, lose weight(2nd class), winter, heal(3rd grade). Reason for the loss of the suffix -And again historical - transition of an unstressed vowel -And into a non-syllabic sound (Cf. ancient Russian forms 2-3 persons leading inclination - wake up, know, mind±i and modern: be, know, be able to etc.).
Now let's turn to derivational zero suffix.
For example: word silence has a word-forming zero suffix, because:
1) in adjective nouns (i.e., in nouns formed from adj.), the derivational meaning of the objectified attribute is expressed using derivational suffixes, for example: deaf - deaf from ah, blind - blind from a, white - white purl a, etc.
2) has the same root quiet. About the simplicity of the Z word quiet indicates the absence of contradictions between the general Z of the root (feature Z) and the general subverbal Z - all adj. indicate a sign.
Moreover, in some cases (such as with words like earless, hairless, pale-faced, gray-haired) it is necessary to take into account the entire word-formation model and even more - the entire word-formation system as a whole.
By origin: original and borrowed.
The relationship between Russian and borrowed morphemes can be represented in the form of diagrams:
K r + A z (Pushkinist)
K z + A r (extend)
K r + A r (mother)
K z + A z (avant-garde)
Morphemes according to their function in a word may be demonstrative (this is a new term).
Derivational morphemes form new words, i.e. words with a new lexical meaning:
teach tel¬ learn(person who teaches children or adults)
tractor ist¬ tractor(person by profession)
learn Xia¬ teach(study on your own)
Verb prefixes almost always form a new word:
build ® By build(finish) - does not change the lexical meaning
above build(above)
re build(remake) new words with new LZ.
Morphemes serve to form the same word. These include not only suffixes and prefixes, but mainly endings:
Sorphemes are attached to word-forming and form-building stems, i.e. they are always formed from something or motivated by something. In all these forms the identity of LZ is preserved, that is, LZ does not change.
readj at¬ read ut f 1 person, singular
teach tel¬ learn
Sol And t ¬ salt
dinner A it's lunch
That is, there is always a motivating basis.
Indicative morphemes have all the original words. We highlight the final affix as an indicator of PR, but we cannot say what motivates this S. pe - t (it is impossible to say from what this word is formed, but only there is an indicator of the verb form - the infinitive).
We form both forms and new words from the basics. Indirect cases of the word house formed from the base of the house. But the word itself house not formed from anything. But - an indicator of noun.
But it's not right. Of course not, and there cannot be an unambiguous decision about what kind of morpheme it is (suffix or ending). In favor of the ending - this morpheme is not involved in word formation and morphology, i.e. behaves like any other ending; in favor of the suffix - if unchanged. form of the word, then there cannot be an ending. Those. this is a special, syncretic morpheme. But in any case, this is not a formative, but a form-indicative morpheme, since teach not motivated by anything.
A morpheme is the smallest significant part of a word and the grammatical forms of a word.
This is the minimum significant unit of language, characterizing, in comparison with the word, both common (integral) and different (differential) features. The integral features of a morpheme and a word are materiality, significance and reproducibility. The differential features of a morpheme include its minimality, repetition, and structural correlation with a word, and not with a phrase or sentence.
However, a clear boundary between both types of morpheme features cannot be drawn, since its integral features, which are externally similar to similar features of a word, while qualitatively different from them, are at the same time differential.
A morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit of language, which may lack a plane of expression while maintaining a certain semantic integrity.
This is observed, for example, in zero morphemes (table - table, arrows - arrows, rad - rad, dried up - dried up, etc.), which represent a significant absence of a sound segment at a certain point in the speech chain.
Functional morphemes (affixes) are characterized by word-formation and grammatical meaning.
So, for example, the suffix - tel/- tel in nouns motivated by verbs (winner, savior) have the word-formation meaning of “person - the producer of the action”, and in the verb victor-l the suffix –l– expresses the grammatical meaning of the past tense .
Endings are carriers of several grammatical meanings at once: gender, number, case for names, person, number for verbs. The carrier of lexical meaning is only the root morpheme.
Syncretic morphemes that combine word-formation and grammatical meanings are few in number in the language. These are mainly verb prefixes. For example, prefixes in-/in-, do-, for-, etc. in combination with the verb to go, expressing, for example, movements (inside, towards an object, behind an object, etc.) at the same time change the form of the verb, transferring it from imperfect form in perfect.
Two features of morphemes – generality and nonlinearity (paradigmatic character) – are clearly integral. The paradigmatic nature of the morpheme is manifested in its ability to be compared with units that have structural commonality, but differ in meaning, which confirms its typical, and therefore generalized, nature. This can be shown by the example of nouns with the suffix - shchik - chik, denoting a person by profession or occupation: wardrobe-schik -, ice-cream-schik -, trailer-schik-, lineman-chik -, cut-chik -, peddler-chik- , pilot - – etc. As for the word, it is studied in morphemics from a grammatical point of view. In this regard, along with its internal structure and division into significant parts, the features of its inflection and formation are considered.
In addition to integral-differential ones, the morpheme also has its own distinctive features.
The most important of them is the sign of its minimality, manifested in the impossibility of further dividing the morpheme into smaller parts without violating its semantic integrity. Otherwise, insignificant units of the lower level are formed - phonemes.
The distinctive features of a morpheme also include its structural salience in the composition of a word, therefore the morpheme is connected with units of a higher, syntactic level not directly, but indirectly, this is evidenced by the inability to act as a member of a sentence and occupy a certain syntactic position in it.
As for the sign of repeatability of a morpheme, this characteristic property of it (most morphemes are used in at least two words of the same word-formation series: teacher, writer, sculptor, designer, etc.) does not apply by all linguists as its mandatory differential features.
Thus, the most proposed concept of a morpheme is the concept, which states that a morpheme is a minimally significant unit of language, which may lack a plane of expression while maintaining a certain semantic integrity.
A morpheme is a two-dimensional unit, having both form and content. In this way it fundamentally differs from a phoneme, which has no meaning, and also from a syllable. A morpheme is a reproducible unit; the speaker does not create morphemes in speech, but takes them from the “inventory” of linguistic units stored in memory, while sentences are among the units created by the speaker directly in speech communication.
1. Servicing and root morphemes.
2. Types of root morphemes. Free and bound morphemes. Affixoids.
3. Types of service morphemes. Question about zero morphemes. Types of morphemes by function.
4. Regularity and uniqueness in morphemes. Unique affixes.
5. Question about asemantic parts of a word. Submorph.
1
The principles of classification of morphemes, as well as other units of language, are based on for various reasons. The central basis for dividing morphemes should be their classification according to their significance in a word, according to the role they play in the structure of the word. This classification involves dividing morphemes into root and auxiliary ones. Service morphemes are sometimes called affixal (broad understanding of the term), which is an attempt to connect morphemics and word formation. More acceptable is a narrower understanding of affixal morphemes as a special type of service morphemes - affixes, opposed to inflections (endings). Then it turns out that service morphemes are divided into affixal and inflectional. This is more logical if we still want to avoid doublet and separate the terms “morpheme” and “affix”.
The root morpheme is the carrier of the main lexical meaning of the word - this definition needs clarification. The fact is that some words (service words) do not have a lexical meaning or it is of a special nature. In addition, there are words where the carriers of the main idea are prefixes (GO AWAY, PUT IN), and the root means nothing at all. Apparently, it would be more accurate to say that the root is the initial, basic part of the semantics of a word in general, minimally semantically conditioned and having maximum independence (the root in pure form, of course, does not appear in the language, but we can determine its meaning in a separate form). The second sign of a root is its obligatory presence in a word, in contrast to service morphemes, which may not exist. The analogy is complete with grammatical basis sentences - main and minor members.
ROOT is the semantically initial, central morpheme of a word, obligatory for each lexical unit, having a minimum of dependence and regularly repeated in all related words and grammatical forms of the word, capable of being used without combination with other roots and expressing the basic lexical meaning of the word.
SERVICE MORPHEME - a morpheme that is not obligatory in the composition of a word (optional), cannot be used in combination with other words and modifies, specifies the meaning of the root, i.e. used to express different grammatical or word-formation meanings of words.
2
Types of root morphemes will also be distinguished depending on the principle of their classification. Based on the principle of repetition and activity in word-formation processes, roots are divided into regular and unique (more on this below). According to the principle of syntagmatic correlation, roots are divided into free and bound. According to their status in the morphemic structure of words, roots are divided into actual roots and affixoids.
Let's start with free and bound roots. We have already encountered phenomena of this type in vocabulary, where we were talking about related meanings various types. In morphemics, it turns out that the compatibility of roots with different morphemes has different degrees of freedom. Along with free roots of the STOL- type, which can attach morphemes, but can also appear in their pure form, there are also bound roots in the language, which necessarily appear only in combination with a word-forming affix (prefix or suffix). As a rule, these are words that are in a relationship of mutual motivation: AGITATOR-AGITATION, ASSISTANT-ASSIST, FASCIST-FASCISM, REVIEWER-REVIEW. OPPONENT-OPPONENT, ISOLATION-INSULATOR. Sometimes coherence is supported by the presence of antonymous pairs: TAKE OFF-SHOES, UNDRESS-DRESS, WEAR, GET USED-GET USED, PRESENT-ABSENT, TAKE OFF-ACCEPT-TAKE-TAKE-DISTRIBUTE, OVERTOP-OVERTOP-REJECT-REFUT-NISPRO RETURN, PENETRATE-PENETRAT-ARISE ; synonymous pairs: STOCK-STOCK, EXPLORE-RESEARCH, SLOPEY-FLOWER. Obviously, if the root is not used without an ending, this does not apply to freedom/connectedness. Also, elements that only resemble the corresponding affix cannot be considered as coherent roots if the words are in relationships of unidirectional motivation: SQUIRREL-SQUIRREL, VIOLIN-VIOLINIST, STREET-ALLEY, FINGER-TWO-FINGER, TRAGEDY-TRAGIC, BARREL-BARREL, PIANO-PIANIST. , therefore, the quasi-suffixal element should simply be considered part of the root, which is truncated during word formation: BELK//BEL - the usual alternation of a phoneme with a zero sound (the same ZEML-I//ZEM-N-OY). Due to the fact that associated roots do not exist absolutely, they cannot directly nominate phenomena of reality, and are not full-fledged roots. They were proposed to be called RADIXOIDS (root-like).
The following classification suggests that, along with pure roots, in morphemics, as in any system, there can be phenomena of a transitional type: those that, being roots by origin and occurring as roots in language, “behave” as morphemes , i.e. They have regularity and form a word-formation model, and also have a non-independent, abstract meaning that modifies only the basic meaning of the root. For example, GENDER/SEX in in different words Now a series of words formed according to this model has a formalized meaning and an open one. At the same time, the word is present both as a root and in such a role is recognized by the native speaker; Wed MALE/FEMALE GENDER. Such phenomena are called AFFIXOIDS (affix-like), respectively, PREFIXOIDS or SUFFIXOIDS. A clear indicator of their affix-likeness is the loss of the direct material meaning of the “former” root: A LINGUIST is not the one who knows the language. They are synonymous, as a rule, with the usual affixes: GERMANIST-GERMANIST.
In classifying morphemes as affixoids, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between the phenomena of synchrony and diachrony. Thus, the element EZHE- in ANNUAL or - TWENTY in TWENTY, although it is a root in origin, is not used as a root in modern language (which means that we have “pure” prefixes and suffixes). The second point is related to borrowings: if an element in the source language was a root, this does not mean that it retained this status in the Russian language. -TEKA, HYDRO-, MICRO-, -SCOP, -PHIL, -LOG, -GRAF, -NEO, -DROM. These are also pure prefixes and suffixes. The third point is that a morpheme cannot be considered an affixoid if it is independently used in the language only as a function word - a preposition and a conversion adverb. Indeed, in this case, all prefixes will have to be considered affixoids, since the model of transition of a prefix into prepositions and vice versa is a universal for many languages. Therefore, INTER(DU), SUPER-, CONTRA-, cannot be considered affixoids. Therefore, only the following elements will be strictly affixoids:
How should we count them? If from a sign of formality - by affixes, if from a sign of preserving a semantic relationship with a similar root - by a root in a special function. It seems that some of them are closer to affixes – SEMI-, ALL-. And others - to the roots - METH, AUTO, A LOT, A LITTLE. It can be done either way. Better yet - the root.
3
Service morphemes are divided by place in the morphemic structure, by function and by material expression.
Affixes are distinguished by place: suffixes, prefixes, postfixes, which are opposed to inflections. Prefix - is attached to the whole word, so it does not change its part-sentence affiliation (therefore, in the case of the PROSIN type, we do not have a prefix, but something else). The suffix, on the contrary, is attached to the stem; it changes, if not the part of speech, then the system of inflection: this gives reason not to say that in the case of -NIGHT-NIGHT we have not a suffixal, but a suffixal-inflectional method of word formation. Postfix - after finishing: it is mechanically glued to the base - agglutination. Postfixes: -TO, -EITHER, -ANIBUD, SYA, KA, TE (in IDE-TE). Inflection is rarely involved in word formation and always acts as a complex of elements - a paradigmatic unit of morphemics. Sometimes it is difficult to determine the status of a particular affix. TE is either a suffix or a postfix (it’s clear here). Тъ in a verb is better considered a suffix, like I in the singular part of the II l. imperative mood. We will call morphemes that modify only the stylistic coloring of a word stylistic: PRE - in TRANSMIT, TRANSMIT, NAI- in the SHORTEST, SI in YESTERDAY, FOX, VEST, TREE, NEEDLE.
According to their function, affixes are divided into word-forming and grammatical. Derivative affixes modify the lexical meaning of the root by adding seme to it (REDDISH – ‘not too red’). They are the ones considered in word formation. Grammatical affixes either form a new grammatical form words - then they are called formative affixes, or they change the form of a word without forming anything new - these are inflectional morphemes = inflections. They are also called syntactic because, unlike formative affixes, they influence the relationships of words in a sentence. This type of service morphemes is not involved in word formation at all; it is considered in morphology. Formative affixes of the Russian language: suffixes of the form of the verb ИВА, А, И, prefixes of the form of the verb S, U, PR, postfix only in the voice function SY, suffixes of comparative and superlative degree of adverbs and adjectives AISH, EYSH, EE, EY, E, formation suffixes participles and gerunds, suffixes TH of the infinitive and suffixes/postfixes of the imperative mood TE and I. Sometimes a morpheme performs two functions simultaneously: word-building and formative THINKING (start to think + perfective form); word-formation and inflectional GOLDEN from GOLD (both word-formation and inflection). Such morphemes are called syncretic.
According to their material expression, morphemes are divided into zero and materially expressed. Usually in science they talk about zero endings, which in the system of forms appear as expressors of grammatical meanings STOL, since STOL-A. It is clear that unchangeable words cannot have zero endings (infinitives, adverbs, gerunds, imperative moods of the verb, comparative degrees of adverbs and adjectives, function words do not have them). Zero endings appear in i.p.ed.h.m.r. II and III classes. noun, short adj., participles, gender. type TASKS, in possessive adjectives m.r. such as BELICHIY, DAD, in verbs m.p., singular. psolag.nakl and past tense: WROTE. Sometimes they are inside the structure of the word (painted). Some scientists do not accept zero endings: V.N. Nemchenko believes that the most important indicator of a morpheme as a sign is material expression - then there cannot be a zero ending, and given value expresses a pure base without ending.
Even more controversial is the selection of the zero formative suffix - CARRY, STAND UP, TAKE CARE. And it is completely doubtful to isolate the word-forming zero morpheme, which is restored from the correlative series of pairs that have this morpheme: SPOUSE-SPOUSE as GENERAL-GENERAL'S WOMAN, BLUE-BLUE, as SINEVA - BLUE, RUN-RUN as WALKING-WALK. But here nothing prevents us from recognizing the system of inflections itself as a carrier of word-formation meaning, without introducing a mystical significant zero.
4
Both root and service morphemes are divided into regular and unique from the point of view of their repetition in different words and the activity of participation in word-formation models modern language. Sometimes this trait is confused with the trait of productivity/unproductivity. Regularity then is the synchronic regular occurrence of an affix in words, and productivity is a diachronic characteristic of its real participation in the formation of new words. Thus, the regularly occurring affixes STIE, IZN, NIZ- will be unproductive. We will leave only regularity/irregularity, since we are primarily interested in synchrony.
There are non-derivative and quasi-derivative words in the language that occur in only one copy. We will call their roots unique roots or uniradixoids: COLD BOLD, BEEF, RASPBERRY, CURRANT, KHAKI, BEIGE, etc. There are also unique affixes (unifixes).
Unique prefixes: SU – DUSK, RA-RAINBOW, BA-BRAG
Unique suffixes: OV - LOVE, MOTHER-IN-LAW, TASH - PATROLLER, ARNIC - BUSH, TUKH - SHEPHERD, ICHOK - NEWCOMER, YUTK - BABY, EL - GOAT. OAK-RAV-. Unique endings: THAT in WHO, WHAT, M – in LADY, EAT, CREATED. Sometimes, to distinguish between rare and isolated phenomena, two terms are used: irregular // unique.
5
The morphemic structure of a word is a complex phenomenon. In particular, during the morphemic analysis of a word, elements in the “remainder” are often identified, which, nevertheless, do not satisfy the basic requirements of a morpheme - the presence of meaning. They are called asemantic parts of the word. However, the category of asemantic parts includes phenomena of different types and status.
1) Connecting vowels (interfixes). Sometimes they say that they still have a meaning - a word-formation function - hence the term interfix. But the connection difficult words can be carried out without these elements (often these are phonetic or morphonological reasons.
2) Actually, interfixes are insignificant extensions to a suffix or root caused by morphonological or etymological reasons. Wed. YALTA, ORLOVSKY - and KOVROVSKY. The term interfix is also unsuccessful here, because it hints at the presence of meaning, becoming on a par with SUFFIX, PREFIX. Better - EXTENSION or ASEMANTIC LINER. They are regular and have a pattern. As a rule, they are included in suffixes or considered outside of morphemes in general, which is theoretically less preferable, because the word must be divided into meaningful parts without remainder.
3) In contrast, there are irregular elements that only look like similar suffixes, but are actually part of the root (this is their difference from interfixes). VIOLIN – VIOLINIST, RESIDENT – LIVE, SINGER – SING, FINGER – FINGER. SYA - in SEEM. We will call these elements submorphs, since they are still associated with real morphs in other words (FINGER - like LITTLE, SQUIRREL - like ARROW). Moreover, submorphs should be distinguished only in derived words, so some scientists do not quite accurately talk about submorphs in the case of BUZHENINA, BEEF (despite the external similarity with similar suffixes, these submorphs have “nothing” to join, since there are no elements of BUZHEN- in the language ).
4) Status of thematic vowels. From Indo-European language our verb inherits the final vowel of the stem, called thematic. If it does not carry semantics (DO, READ, LOVE) - to the root (submorph); if it plays a formative role: aspect (INCLUDED/INCLUDED), verbs of motion (BEAR/WEAR) - formative suffix; it can also be a derivational suffix in derived words (WHITE/WHITE, CLEAN).
Types of morphemes by function
Morphemes according to their function in a word may be S/Oym, f/Oym and findicative (this is a new term).
Derivational morphemes form new words, i.e. words with a new lexical meaning:
teach tel teach t(person who teaches children or adults)
tractor ist tractor (person by profession)
learn Xia learn (study on your own)
Verb prefixes almost always form a new word:
build ® By build(finish) - does not change the lexical meaning
above build(above)
re build(remake) new words with new LZ.
f/O morphemes serve to form ff of the same word. These include not only f/O suffixes and prefixes, but mainly endings:
In all these forms, the identity of LZ is preserved, that is, LZ does not change.
S/O and f/O sorphemes are attached to word-forming and formative stems, i.e. they are always derived from or motivated by something.
readj at readj ut f 1 person, singular
teach tel teach t
Sol And t salt
dinner A t dinner
That is, there is always a motivating basis.
f/indicative morphemes have all the original words. We highlight the final affix as an indicator of PR, but we cannot say what motivates this S. ne-t (it is impossible to say what this word is derived from, but there is only an indicator of the verb form - the infinitive).
We form both forms and new words from the basics. ff indirect cases at the word house formed from the base house. But the word itself house not formed from anything. But Ø is a noun indicator.
There is confusion in school textbooks:
teach t
и - f/О ь - f/О suffix
But it's not right. Of course not, and there cannot be an unambiguous decision about what kind of morpheme it is (suffix or ending). In favor of the ending - this morpheme does not participate in word formation and morphology, i.e. behaves like any other ending; in favor of the suffix - if unchanged. form of the word, then there cannot be an ending. Those. this is a special, syncretic morpheme. But in any case, this is not a formative, but a form-indicative morpheme, since teach not motivated by anything.
